Cbrl6tian  Service  Series 

=  EDITED  BY  = 
E.   HERSHEY  SNEATH,  Ph.D.,LL.D. 

Professor  of  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and  Religious 
Education,  Yale  University 


MODERN  CHRISTIAN  CALLINGS 


jn^g^ 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •   CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •   SAN  FRANCISCO. 

MACMILLAN  &  CO..  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OP  CANADA,  Ltd, 

TORONTO 


"modern  christian 
callings 

195 


EDITED    BY 

E.  HERSHEY  SNEATH 


/ 

V 


BIBLICAL  TEACHING  IN  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE 

BY 
IRVING  'wood 

EXECUTIVES  FOR  CHRISTIAN  ENTERPRISES 

BY 
DWIGHT  H.  DAY 

OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  SOCIAL  VS^ORK 

BY 

WILLIAM  BACON  BAILEY 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1922 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1922, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped,  1922;  published.  May,  1922 


Printed  In  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 

This  book,  as  the  title  page  indicates,  aims  to  acquaint 
the  reader  with  the  nature  and  opportunities  of  certain 
leading  Christian  Callings  and  the  personal  and  educa- 
tional qualifications  necessary  for  success  in  them.  The 
work  of  these  professions  is  so  important  for  the  individual 
and  for  society,  and  the  demand  for  specially  trained  men 
is  so  great,  that  it  is  hoped  a  book  of  this  kind  will  prove 
helpful  to  young  men  contemplating  some  form  of  such 
service  as  a  life  work,  as  well  as  to  the  organizations 
that  represent  these  Callings  in  their  efforts  to  secure 
recruits.  The  book  is  designed  primarily  for  use  among 
college  men. 

E.  Heeshey  Sneath. 

Yale  Univeesitt,  February  22,  1922. 


CONTENTS 

PAKT  I 

Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

Irving  F.  Wood,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Biblical  Liter- 
ature and  Comparative  Religion,  Smith  College. 

PART  II 

Executives  for  Chuech  Enterprises 

Dwight  H.  Day,  B.A.,   Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Missions,  Presbyterian  Church. 

PART  III 

Social  Service 

William    Bailey,    Ph.D.,    Formerly    Professor    of 
Practical  Philanthropy,  Yale  University. 


PAET  I 

BIBLICAL  TEACH^G  IN  SCHOOL  A:N^D 
COLLEGE 

By 
Ieving  F.  Wood 


MODERN  CHRISTIAN 
CALLINGS 


BIBLICAL  TEACHI:N^G  m  SCHOOL  AND 
COLLEGE 

IN"  numbers  Bible  teaching  is  one  of  the  smaller  profes- 
sions. At  present  probably  not  more  than  six  hun- 
dred positions  are  held  by  Bible  teachers,  both  men 
and  women,  in  the  United  States;  not  a  thousand  among 
the  English-speaking  people  in  the  world.  The  positions 
will  increase  in  numbers,  but  probably  not  rapidly  nor 
extensively.  The  profession  might  easily  be  overcrowded, 
but  it  is  not  likely  to  be,  because  a  thorough  preparation 
for  it  is  a  task  of  labor  and  patience,  and  the  work  is  not 
one  to  attract  those  who  ^^seek  great  things  for  them- 
selves." The  fact  that  the  field  is  so  small  leads  most 
people  away  from  it.  Up  to  the  present  time  there  has 
been  a  shortage  of  adequately  prepared  teachers,  and  each 
year  sees  a  few  positions  open  which  are  difficult  to  fill 
satisfactorily. 

I.    The  Field  of  Biblical  Teaching 

There  is  a  certain  limited  field  in  the  better  private 
schools.  Many  schools  teach  the  Bible,  and  more  would 
if  they  could  find  properly  prepared  teachers.  The  pres- 
sure upon  the  teaching  time  of  the  schools  is  great.  Sub- 
jects clamor  for  admission.  College  preparation  controls 
the  courses  of  those  students  who  are  going  to  college.  But 
many  head  masters  feel  that  some  knowledge  of  the  Bible 


4       Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

is  an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  an  educated  per- 
son, whether  college  bred  or  not.  Some  church  schools 
also  require  the  subject.  In  1919  a  Preliminary  Keport 
of  a  Committee  on  the  Definition  of  a  Unit  of  Bible  Study 
for  Secondary  Schools  ^  was  published,  setting  forth  a 
standard  course  in  Bible  which  might  be  used  as  a  unit 
of  College  entrance.  The  faculties  of  over  two  hundred 
colleges  had  already  by  the  spring  of  1921  voted  to 
accept  among  the  optional  subjects  for  entrance  one  unit 
of  work  in  Bible,  if  done  under  prepared  teachers  and 
with  a  thoroughness  equal  to  the  work  of  other  subjects 
offered  for  College  entrance.  Boards  of  Admission  of 
Colleges  will  not  be  lenient  in  the  requirements  of  this 
subject,  for  many  members  of  faculties,  whose  only  idea 
of  Bible  study  is  derived  from  the  memories  of  the  shallow- 
ness and  inefficiency  of  the  '^Sunday  school  work"  of  their 
childhood,  look  with  great  suspicion  on  this  as  an  entrance 
subject.  That,  however,  will  only  make  the  demand  for 
properly  qualified  teachers  more  urgent,  l^o  school  that 
intends  to  offer  its  Bible  work  for  college  entrance  can 
afford,  for  the  sake  of  its  general  scholastic  reputation, 
to  have  that  work  poorly  done.  If  it  is  given  into  the 
hands  of  whatever  teacher  happens  to  have  a  little  less 
crowded  schedule  than  others,  without  regard  to  prepara- 
tion or  special  knowledge,  the  school  may  expect  to  have 
its  work  declined. 

Few  schools  can  afford  to  provide  a  teacher  for  Bible 
alone.  Generally  a  teacher  of  Bible  in  the  schools  must 
be  prepared  to  do  some  other  work  also.  One  change  we 
may  expect  in  the  future.  In  the  past  the  Bible  has 
been  taught  by  some  one  whose  main  work  was  Latin  or 
Mathematics  or  some  other  subject.  In  the  future  we  may 
expect  that  there  will  be  a  call  for  teachers  whose  main 
■work  is  Bible,  but  who  will  also  be  competent  to  teach 
other  subjects. 

iSee  Religious  Education,  December,  1919   (Vol.  XIV),  p.  389ff. 


The  Field  of  Biblical  Teaching  5 

It  is  in  the  College  field  that  the  greatest  demand  for 
teachers  of  Bible  exists,  and  is  likely  to  exist  for  an  in- 
definite time  in  the  future.  Here  there  is  no  question  of 
combination  of  the  Bible  with  other  work.  The  self- 
respecting  college  desires  its  teachers  of  the  Bible  to  be 
as  exclusively  devoted  to  their  subject  as  are  the  teachers 
of  any  other  department.  It  is  recognized  in  all  college 
circles  that  the  demands  for  preparation  and  for  keeping 
abreast  of  the  progress  of  scholarship  in  this  subject  are 
as  exacting  as  in  any  other. 

Over  three  hundred  colleges  in  the  United  States  offer 
a  certain  amount  of  Bible  work.  Approximately  one  third 
of  these  utilize  the  entire  time  of  a  teacher  in  Bible,  and 
in  the  rest  Bible  work  is  done  by  a  teacher  who  gives  a 
certain  proportion  of  his  time  to  other  teaching.  The 
combination  of  Bible  with  other  subjects,  however,  is  not 
considered  desirable,  and  is  usually  only  regarded  as  a 
temporary  expedient,  to  be  changed  as  soon  as  conditions 
will  permit. 

A  movement  which  is  likely  to  increase  is  that  of  Junior 
Colleges.  In  some  states,  as  Missouri,  there  is  a  definite 
relation  between  the  Junior  Colleges  and  the  State  Univer- 
sity. Some  cities  are  adding  to  their  high  schools  local 
Junior  Colleges,  and  more  are  likely  to  follow  the  plan. 
These  Junior  Colleges  give  the  first  two  years  of  college 
work,  or,  in  the  case  of  some  local  city  colleges,  only 
the  first  year.  The  reason  for  their  organization  is 
that  many  students  who  would  be  glad  to  take  college 
work  find  themselves  unable  to  do  so  at  the  close  of  their 
high  school  course.  Such  students  may  obtain  at  a  local 
Junior  College  at  least  a  part  of  a  college  course,  and 
often  may  be  able  to  proceed  to  a  standard  college  for 
the  later  years.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  ambitious 
secondary  schools  on  the  one  hand  and  so-called  colleges 
which  have  never  been  able  to  gain  a  proper  collegiate 
equipment  on  the  other,  have  been  able  to  offer  respectable 
work  as  Junior  Collies.    The  movement  has  an  interest- 


6       Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

ing  future  with  many  problems.  If  handled  wisely,  it 
may  be  an  important  factor  in  the  educational  system. 

Work  in  Junior  Colleges  is  specially  worthy  of  con- 
sideration for  two  reasons.  One  is  that  it  is  liable  to 
be  overshadowed  in  the  minds  of  prospective  teachers  by 
the  greater  prestige  and  glamour  of  the  standard  colleges. 
The  danger  is  that  Junior  Colleges  will  have  to  content 
themselves  with  the  left-overs  from  the  candidates  for 
college  teaching.  This  ought  not  to  be  so.  This  field 
is  in  some  respects  as  important  as  that  of  the  standard 
college.  The  teacher  will  have,  in  general,  more  influence 
upon  his  pupils,  and  will  be  more  closely  in  touch  with 
the  communities  from  which  they  come.  His  opportunity 
for  definitely  molding  life  will  often  be  greater  than  it 
would  be  if  he  found  his  work  in  a  large  standard  college 
with  many  other  teachers  and  with  all  the  diversions  of 
college  life. 

The  second  reason  for  its  special  consideration  is  the 
chance  it  offers  to  the  person  of  initiation  and  large  vision 
to  perform  a  distinctive  service  for  the  future.  Here  is  a 
field  where,  amid  the  rapidly  settling  forms  of  our  civili- 
zation, definite  pioneer  work  may  still  be  done.  The  pos- 
sible field  for  Junior  Colleges  is  large.  Cities  with  am- 
bitious educational  departments  are  very  likely  to  desire 
their  own  Junior  Colleges.  In  the  larger  cities,  some 
of  these  will  develop  into  local  city-supported  standard 
colleges.  To  help  mold  their  policies  and  ideals  and  to 
influence  the  whole  movement  of  which  they  are  a  part, 
will  be  a  work  not  insignificant  or  unimportant.  Where 
these  Junior  Colleges  are  tax-supported,  as  in  the  city 
schools,  the  problem  of  moral  and  religious  teaching  will 
be  of  great  importance.  It  is  as  yet  wholly  unsolved. 
It  is  certain  to  arise,  and  tact,  wisdom  and  patience  will 
be  needed  in  its  solution.  Here  is  a  great  opportunity  for 
educational  and  Christian  statesmanship. 

The  State  Universities  offer  a  different  but  kindred 
group  of  problems  which  are  still  for  the  most  part  await- 


The  Field  of  Biblical  Teaching  7 

ing  solution.  How  shall  the  religious  needs  of  their  large 
body  of  students  be  met?  That  it  will  be  met  we  may 
assume.  Religion  as  a  factor  in  all  worthy  education  is 
being  recognized  as  it  has  not  been  before. 

There  are  two  phases  of  the  problem.  One  is  what  may 
be  called  the  pastoral  side;  how  to  keep  the  students  in 
touch  with  the  church  and  its  religious  influence.  The 
other  is  the  teaching  side;  how  to  introduce  the  study  of 
the  Bible  and  of  religion  to  the  scholarly  consciousness  of 
the  students.  This  is  the  teacher's  problem.  Its  difficulty 
lies  in  the  necessity  of  avoiding  the  charge  of  sectarianism 
in  state  supported  schools.  The  non-sectarian  character 
of  public  education  in  a  democracy  is  right  and  must  be 
carefully  guarded.  ISTone  should  be  more  careful  to  guard 
it  than  those  who  profess  to  be  working  for  religious 
education.     Those  who  laud  ethics  must  not  be  unethical. 

At  present  the  teaching  problem  is  met  in  two  ways. 
In  some  states  schools  of  religion  are  formed  whose  courses 
are  recognized  by  the  university  and,  under  certain  reason- 
able conditions,  are  credited  toward  degrees.  The  con- 
ditions and  standards  for  the  accrediting  of  such  courses 
in  connection  with  the  University  of  Illinois  were  pub- 
lished in  Religious  Education,  April,  1920.  Among  the 
specifications  is,  that  the  teachers  in  these  schools  shall 
have  a  Ph.D.  from  a  university  of  recognized  standing, 
or  an  equivalent  education  acceptable  to  the  University. 
Teachers  in  such  affiliated  schools  will  need  to  be  thor- 
oughly equipped  and  to  possess  more  than  the  usual  meas- 
ure of  ability  and  personality ;  but  the  rewards  in  service 
to  the  state  and  in  construction  of  character  will  be  pro- 
portionally great. 

In  other  states  courses  in  the  Bible  and  the  history  of 
religion  and  kindred  subjects  are  introduced,  sometimes 
in  connection  with  chairs  of  ancient  history  or  Semitics. 
This  plan  gives  the  teacher  the  technical  advantage  of 
working  directly  under  the  university,  but  he  must  be  care- 
ful not  to  arouse  sectarian  jealousies.     He  will  need  also 


8       Biblical  Teaching  iit  School  and  College 

to  keep  his  aim  of  religious  idealism  very  clearly  defined, 
or  lie  "will  find  himself  working  only  on  the  level  of  in- 
tellectual effort.  For  the  right  man  with  the  right  ideals 
state  university  teaching  offers  a  field  of  great  useful- 
ness. 

The  positions  in  state  universities  are  at  present  very 
few  in  numher.  They  will  never  be  numerous.  Another 
field,  also  limited,  is  the  teaching  in  professional  schools 
of  theology.  Here  technical  scholars  are  needed  in  Semitic 
languages  and  Biblical  and  Patristic  Greek.  The  older 
tradition  that  all  theological  students  must  be  able  to  read 
the  Bible  in  Hebrew  is  passing ;  some  think  it  a  pity.  But 
certainly  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  there  will  always  be  a  group 
of  students  of  theology  who  will  only  be  satisfied  with 
thorough  Biblical  scholarship.  They  ought  to  realize  that 
they  cannot  be  thorough  students  of  the  Bible  without 
Greek  and  Hebrew. 

As  the  pressure  of  a  wider  range  of  studies  takes  from 
the  time  formerly  given  to  Greek  and  Hebrew  it  becomes 
all  the  more  necessary  that  the  study  of  the  Bible  offered 
to  theological  students  should  be  given  by  teachers  of  the 
widest  and  most  thorough  Biblical  scholarship,  combined 
with  a  clear  insight  into  modem  life.  Religious  leaders 
must,  if  Christianity  is  to  keep  its  power,  go  out  from 
the  schools  of  theology  with  the  ability  to  make  clear  to 
the  church  and  the  world  the  connection  between  the 
principles  of  Biblical  religion  and  the  needs  of  the  world 
to-day.  Their  teachers  must  help  them  to  see  this  con- 
nection. 

II.    The  Differentiation  of  Biblical  Teaching 

The  needs  of  the  secondary  school  differ  from  those  of 
the  college  and  these  from  the  needs  of  the  professional 
school;  and  to  each  the  teaching  of  the  Bible  must  be 
adapted.  In  the  secondary  school  must  be  given  some 
elementary  knowledge  of  the  great  facts  of  Hebrew  his- 


The  Diffeeentiation  of  Biblical  Teaching        9 

tory;  a  familiarity  with,  the  more  important  stories  of 
the  Bible ;  an  appreciation  of  its  great  characters,  includ- 
ing that  of  Christ ;  and  the  principles  of  Biblical  religion 
and  ethics  in  their  application  to  the  life  of  to-day.  This 
can  be  summed  up  thus:  A  reasonable  familiarity  with 
(a)  the  contents  of  the  Biblical  story,  (b)  the  elements 
of  Biblical  history;  (c)  the  fundamentals  of  Biblical  re- 
ligion. By  a  reasonable  familiarity  is  meant  the  knowl- 
edge which  will  make  a  person  intelligent  in  the  common 
Biblical  uses  of  English  literature  and  in  the  application 
of  Biblical  principles  to  the  problems  of  daily  life  and 
of  public  affairs.  It  covers  both  the  '^cultural"  and  the 
^^practical"  side  of  education. 

In  colleges  the  aim  is  again  twofold:  ^^cultural"  and 
"practical.''  On  the  "cultural"  side,  however,  it  is  not 
merely  to  gain  familiarity  with  Biblical  stories  or  the 
bare  facts  of  Hebrew  history,  but  primarily  to  trace  the 
growth  of  Biblical  history  and  literature,  that  students 
may  see  how  the  evolution  of  man  has  worked  in  the  field 
of  Hebrew  life ;  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the  great  types  of 
Biblical  literature, — story,  prophecy,  poetry,  apocalypse, 
and,  in  the  New  Testament,  letters.  Students  should  be 
able  to  make  some  intelligent  comparison  of  Biblical  lit- 
erature with  the  literature  of  other  races  and  other  times. 
This  is  the  cultural  objective  toward  which  the  college 
course  must  move.  It  involves  the  ability  to  understand, 
appreciate  and  sympathize  with  a  life  and  civilization  not 
our  own. 

'Now  this  is  culture  abstractly  defined ;  but  the  process 
of  gaining  it  is  concrete.  In  the  Bible,  it  means  a  study 
of  the  various  sources  of  the  Hexateuch,  and  the  purpose 
and  point  of  view  of  each;  of  the  aims  of  the  writers  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible;  of  the  social  situation  which  called 
forth  the  fire  of  Amos  and  Micah ;  of  the  politics  of  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah ;  of  the  passoniate  hope  with  which  Ezekiel 
and  the  Second  Isaiah  met  the  despair  of  the  exile ;  of  the 
causes  and  the  limitations  of  apocalyptic  writing;  of  the 


10     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

inter-relations  of  the  synoptic  gospels  and  of  the  occasions 
of  Paul's  letters.  But  all  through  these  literary  and  re- 
ligious studies  the  modern  college  student  must  be  made 
to  feel  the  pulsing  of  life,  with  the  fundamental  human 
passions  which  thrill  in  the  world  about  him  to-day.  Then 
his  study  of  the  Bible  will  issue  in  sympathy,  which  is, 
after  all,  only  another  name  for  culture. 

But,  great  as  it  is,  the  cultural  aspect  is  the  smaller 
part  of  the  object  of  college  teaching  of  the  Bible.  Edu- 
cation must  issue  in  a  better  life.  Culture  as  the  sympa- 
thetic understanding  of  other  life  makes  the  cultured  per- 
son's own  life  richer  and  more  useful.  Here  the  teachers 
of  the  Bible  possess  an  advantage  over  the  teachers  of 
other  literatures.  Most  of  the  Bible — all  except  the  minor 
books  of  Esther  and  the  Song  of  Songs — ^was  written  for 
a  religious  purpose.  One  cannot  study  the  books  of  the 
Bible  from  a  purely  literary  point  of  view  without  finding 
himself  soon  in  the  presence  of  a  religious  ideal.  That 
the  religious  beliefs  of  some  writers  differ  from  that  of 
others  and  those  of  most  writers  from  our  own  beliefs  at 
some  points  is  an  advantage  to  the  College  teacher.  It 
forces  a  critical  examination  of  the  foundations  of  re- 
ligious beliefs.  This  helps  immensely  in  the  readjust- 
ment of  religious  ideas  which  is  usually  going  on  in  a 
student's  mind.  Thus  the  teacher  of  the  Bible  can,  with- 
out the  least  intrusion  upon  the  sacred  bounds  of  the  stu- 
dent's personality,  assist  as  no  other  teacher  can  in  meet- 
ing the  plain  obligation  which  rests  upon  the  college  to 
*'help  the  student's  religious  development  keep  pace  with 
his  development  in  other  aspects  of  life  and  culture." 

People  of  conservative  points  of  view  sometimes  com- 
plain that  the  modern  college  teacher  of  the  Bible  "up- 
sets" his  students ;  that  his  teaching  tends  to  unsettle  the 
faith  of  their  childhood.  That  depends  very  largely  on 
what  the  faith  of  their  childhood  was.  If  it  was  a  static 
faith,  staking  all  religion  on  the  truth  of  certain  opinions 
about  the  Bible — e.  g.,  that  its  science  and  history  must  be 


The    DlFFEREiq-TIATION    OF    BiBLICAL    TEACHING         11 

accurate  or  else  its  religion  is  false — and  on  the  correct- 
ness of  certain  theological  doctrines,  then  the  student 
does  not  need  to  reach  the  Bible  class  to  be  ^'upset."  Sci- 
ence and  philosophy  usually  do  the  work.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  Bible  department,  in  such  cases,  often  performs 
the  part  of  a  wrecking  expedition,  rescuing  the  remnants 
of  a  shattered  faith  and  showing  the  students  how  they 
may  build  a  stable  foundation  for  religious  life.  If  the 
faith  of  their  childhood  provided  for  growth  and  change 
with  the  growing,  changing  life,  then  there  is  no  "upset- 
ting," no  wrecking  of  faith  by  Biblical  of  any  other  study. 
Then  religion  simply  expands  with  the  progress  of  knowl- 
edge as  plants  expand  in  the  sunshine  and  shower  of  the 
spring,  naturally,  easily,  without  struggle  or  strain.  This 
is  what  should  be.  Why  should  the  readjustment  in  re- 
ligious ideals  be  any  more  painful  than  the  social  read- 
justment from  a  family-centered  world  to  a  world  of  wide 
obligations?  This  happier  conception  of  religion  is  far 
more  frequent  among  students  than  it  was  a  few  years 
ago.  Less  and  less  often  is  the  teacher  of  the  Bible  obliged 
to  see  the  pitiful  sight  of  the  slow  rebuilding  of  a  wrecked 
childhood  faith. 

The  needs  of  the  professional  schools  are  different  still. 
The  Biblical  training  of  pastors,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  secretaries, 
and  other  religious  leaders  must  be  in  the  use  of  the  Bible 
as  a  factor  in  the  development  of  religious  experience.  It 
must  include  two  elements.  One  is  a  training  in  the  more 
technical  elements  of  modern  Biblical  study  as  a  back- 
ground of  the  thorough  Biblical  knowledge  which  a  re- 
ligious leader  should  possess;  the  other  is  a  more  careful 
study  than  is  possible  in  the  college  course  of  Biblical 
thought  and  its  relation  to  the  thought  and  life  of  to-day. 
The  church  especially  needs  pastors  who  will  neither  in- 
terpret Biblical  religion  narrowly,  nor  be  obliged  to  aban- 
don the  Bible  and  its  teachings  when  they  approach  the 
gravest  problems  of  modern  life  because  they  are  funda- 
mentally  ignorant   of   the    foundation   principles   of   its 


12     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

teaching.  In  addition  to  these  needs,  the  professional 
school  must  offer,  if  its  tradition  of  pure  scholarship  is  to 
be  preserved,  work  of  a  highly  technical  character,  for 
which  teachers  are  needed  who  have  a  genius  for  sp^ 
cialized  investigation. 

III.    The  Biblical  Curriculum 

The  curriculum  of  Biblical  study  in  secondary  schools 
on  the  one  hand,  and  in  graduate  and  professional  schools 
on  the  other,  is  determined  by  circumstances.  In  sec- 
ondary schools  what  colleges  will  accept  is  liable  to  dom- 
inate  the  curriculum  in  this  as  in  other  subjects.  In  gen- 
eral that  course  will  be  wisely  planned ;  but  no  teacher 
ought  to  make  himself  a  slave  to  it.  If  he  feels  that  he 
can  effectively  do  some  portion  of  his  work  in  his  own 
way  he  should  have  that  liberty,  especially  where  the  work 
is  not  to  be  offered  for  college  entrance.  The  great  prob- 
lems of  making  a  curriculum  come  in  college  work.  The 
subject  has  no  traditions.  As  a  college  study  it  has 
grown  up  entirely  within  the  present  generation.  The 
pioneer  teachers  of  it  are  still  at  work.  These  teachers 
had  no  models  to  follow.  They  worked  out  their  own 
plans  and  developed  their  own  elective  and,  in  certain 
places,  required  courses,  with  no  aid  from  tradition  and 
little  from  consultation.  Not  till  after  the  founding  of 
the  Religious  Education  Association  in  1903  was  there 
any  medium  of  common  knowledge  of  what  was  being 
done.  In  1911  an  association  of  the  teachers  of  Bible  in 
Schools  and  Colleges  was  formed,  which  meets  annually 
in  or  near  Kew  York  in  the  Christmas  holidays  for  the 
discussion  of  aims  and  methods  in  Bible  teaching.  Tradi- 
tions and  standards  are  beginning  to  appear  as  the  result 
of  the  comparison  of  the  independent  experience  of  many 
teachers. 

It  is  interesting  that  without  much  consultation  the 
Biblical  curriculum  has  taken  a  somewhat  definite  form. 


The  Biblical  Curriculum  13 

In  nearly  all  colleges  a  general  fundamental  course  is  of- 
fered, upon  which  all  other  Biblical  work  is  based.  This 
is  sometimes  called  Hebrew  History  and  sometimes  Bibli- 
cal Introduction  or  Biblical  Literature.  The  difference 
is  largely  a  difference  of  emphasis ;  in  one  kind  of  course 
the  history  is  studied  with  the  literature  introduced  in 
its  proper  chronological  order ;  in  the  other,  the  literature 
is  studied  in  order,  with  the  introduction  of  so  much  of 
the  history  as  shall  make  the  occasion  and  purpose  of  the 
literature  plain.  In  either  kind  of  course  the  purpose  is 
to  understand  the  Bible ;  to  know  why  the  writers  of  the 
various  books  wrote  and  what  it  was  they  wished  to  say; 
to  be  able  by  historic  sympathy  to  look  at  life  in  some 
measure  as  they  looked  at  it;  and  then  to  come  back  to 
the  problems  of  our  own  life  bringing  their  answers  to  the 
problems  of  their  life.  Their  answers  do  not  always  fit 
our  problems,  but  the  fundamental  religious  principles 
upon  which  their  answers  rest  usually  underlie  our 
answers. 

Upon  the  basis  of  this  comprehensive  course  other 
courses  should  be  offered,  suited  in  number  and  subject 
to  the  student's  needs  and  the  teacher's  interests.  Here 
may  come  a  thorough  study  of  some  of  the  teachings  of 
Jesus,  or  a  more  careful  study  of  some  particular  portion 
of  the  literature ;  apocalyptic  or  Johannine  or  Pauline.  A 
study  of  Biblical  thought  in  its  historical  development  is 
specially  fitted  for  the  upper  years.  So  is  the  social  ethics 
of  ISTew  Testament  Christianity.  In  general,  courses  in 
the  upper  college  years  should  be  concerned  not  with  the 
gathering  of  mere  historic  facts,  but  with  the  development 
of  ideas,  with  their  criticism  and  with  their  application 
to  the  conditions  of  present  life.  A  teacher  of  Biblical 
literature  may  profitably  ask  himself,  *'How  would  a 
teacher  of  the  history  of  Greek  or  French  literature  deal 
with  this  book  if  it  lay  in  his  field  ?"  A  teacher  of  courses 
appropriate  to  upper  classes  may  ask,  "How  would  a 
teacher  of  the  history  of  ethics  or  of  economic  theory  deal 


14     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

with  this  subject  if  it  lay  in  his  field?''  The  first  thing 
college  students  need  is  definite  information;  the  second 
is  power  to  think.  The  Biblical  courses  ought  to  con- 
tribute to  both  disciplines. 

The  following  are  two  arrangements  of  the  subjects 
from  which  a  curriculum  of  a  Biblical  department  may 
select  its  material: 

I.  A  three-fold  classification: 

(1)  Religion — its  philosophy,  psychology,  history. 

(2)  Biblical  religion — its  history,  literature,   content. 

(3)  Practical  religion — its  organization  and  conduct.^ 

II.  A  four-fold  division : 

Group  I.  Religion:  (1)  Psychology,  (2)  Ethics,  (3) 
The  History  of  Religion,  (4),  The  Philosophy  of  Re- 
ligion. 

Group  II.  Biblical  Religion:  (1)  Biblical  History, 
(2)  Biblical  Literature,  (3)  Biblical  Religion,  (4)  Bibli- 
cal Language. 

Group  III.  Christian  Religion:  (1)  History  of  Chris- 
tianity, (2)  The  Social  Problems  of  Christianity,  (3) 
The  Propagation  of  Christianity. 

Group  IV.  Religious  Education:  (1)  The  History  of 
Education,  (2)  Methods  and  Practice  Work.^ 

ISTeither  of  these  schemes  is  arranged  in  the  order  of 
presentation  in  a  college  course.  That  order  should  pro- 
ceed from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  They  are  valuable 
as  giving  the  field  within  which  lie  the  legitimate  sub- 
jects of  a  department  of  Biblical  study.  One  sees  that 
the  field  is  wider  than  the  Bible.  The  department  which 
deals  with  it  at  all  adequately  may  very  properly  be  called, 
not  The  Department  of  Biblical  Literature,  but  The  De- 
partment of  Religion.  Some  teachers  prefer  this  wider 
title. 


*  Professor   H.   T.    Fowler,   Religious   Education,   Vol.   X,    No.    4, 
p.  357. 

2  Professor  I.  J,  Ismar,  Religious  Education,  Vol.  X,  No.  4,  p.  362. 


Related  Subjects  15 


TV.    Related  Subjects 

In  ordinary  school  and  college  work  the  teacher  of  the 
Bible  will  often  be  called  upon  to  teach  kindred  subjects. 
In  schools  the  teacher  of  the  Bible  may  expect  to  teach 
other  subjects  out  of  the  ordinary  school  curriculum.  In 
college  he  ought  not  to  be  called  upon  to  teach  unrelated 
subjects,  any  more  than  the  teacher  of  Greek  or  Mathe- 
matics or  Chemistry.  There  are,  however,  certain  re- 
lated subjects  which  fall  more  or  less  appropriately  within 
his  proper  field.  A  glance  through  the  catalogues  of  col- 
leges will  show  that  few  Bible  teachers  confine  themselves 
strictly  to  teaching  the  Bible. 

The  following  subjects  are  often  included  with  the 
Bible  in  college  curricula: 

1.  A  Group  of  Philosophical  Subjects,  Psychology  of 
Religion.  This  subject  has  come  to  the  front  with  the 
present  generation.  The  pioneer  work  on  modern  lines 
was  Starbuck's  Psychology  of  Religion,  1899.  Since  then 
the  subject  has  commanded  constantly  increased  attention. 
A  good  body  of  material  for  study  has  been  gathered, 
though  there  is  much  need  for  more  work.  The  subject 
belongs  properly  to  the  department  of  psychology,  ^o  one 
but  a  trained  psychologist  should  handle  it.  If,  however, 
the  department  of  psychology  does  not  wish  to  take  it,  and 
if  the  teacher  of  Bible  has  the  proper  training,  it  may 
properly  fall  within  his  sphere.  He  is  constantly  dealing 
with  material  belonging  to  the  subject ;  the  prophetic  con- 
sciousness, the  effect  of  sacrifice  and  temple  ritual,  the  in- 
citement to  faith  in  the  exile,  the  apocalyptic  psychology, 
Paul's  conversion,  and  much  else.  If  the  subject  is  taught 
in  the  department  of  psychology  he  may  cooperate  by  con- 
tributing much  to  its  material,  and  it  should  in  turn  throw 
light  on  many  Biblical  situations. 

Philosophy  of  Religion.  This  subject  is  as  old  as  the 
problem  of  God  and  His  relation  to  the  world.    Its  roots 


16     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

lie  in  Greek  philosophy.  It  belongs  properly  to  the  de- 
partment of  philosophy.  It  needs  for  its  proper  treat- 
ment a  wide  and  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
philosophy.  'Now  the  Bible  is  not  philosophical  in  the 
technical  sense.  The  Hebrews  never  raised  problems  of 
reality  or  of  the  universe.  They  assumed  an  immediate 
relation  between  God  and  the  world,  but  they  did  not  dis- 
cuss it.  We,  who  are  intellectual  descendants  of  the 
Greeks  and  religious  descendants  of  the  Hebrews,  find 
the  religious  assumptions  of  the  Bible  immediately  rais- 
ing philosophical  problems.  The  teacher  of  the  Bible 
whose  students  feel  the  delightful  freedom  of  saying  what 
they  really  think  in  his  classroom  will  frequently  find 
himself  presented  with  questions  from  the  field  of  the 
philosophy  of  religion.  But  if  it  is  not  offered  by  the  de- 
partment of  philosophy,  and  if  the  teacher  of  Bible  has 
the  proper  qualifications,  the  subject  may  well  appear  in 
the  Biblical  department. 

2.  A  Group  of  Historical  Subjects,  Oriental  History. 
In  many  colleges  the  main  Biblical  course  is  called  He- 
brew History.  Aside  from  this,  however,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ancient  Oriental  civilizations  not  only  throws 
light  upon  the  Bible,  but  is  worth  study  for  its  illustra- 
tions of  the  laws  of  historic  evolution.  The  teacher  with 
the  needed  equipment  may  well  bring  this  historical  study 
down  to  the  present.  It  is  a  fascinating  study,  rich  in 
material  for  the  understanding  of  historical  movements 
in  the  west  as  well  as  in  the  east. 

Oriental  history  opens  to  the  teacher  two  temptations. 
One  is  that  of  superficiality.  It  is  easy  to  teach  names 
and  dates  out  of  text  books  and  leave  the  whole  subject  a 
mere  valley  of  dry  bones;  yet  nowhere  in  the  world  have 
the  movements  of  history  brought  more  tragedy  or  triumph, 
more  suffering  or  comfort  to  the  people.  No  one  ought 
to  teach  the  subject  till  he  has  so  lived  himself  into  it  that 
these  eastern  lands  are  not  remote  and  strange,  but  a  vital 
part  of  the  brotherhood  of  humanity.    Eastern  travel  may 


Related  Subjects  17 

help  in  this  sympathy,  but  a  man  with  a  vivid  historical 
imagination  who  has  never  crossed  the  ocean  may  yet 
have  felt  the  throb  of  reality  in  the  life  of  the  Orient. 

The  other  temptation  is  the  opposite.  It  is  the  danger 
of  swamping  the  work  with  historical  or  archaeological 
detail.  It  would  be  easy  to  spend  a  year  on  Egyptian 
Archaeology  or  on  the  patesis  and  kings  of  the  old  Baby- 
lonian emj)ire.  Such  courses  should  be  kept  for  graduate 
work  in  universities.  The  undergTaduate  needs  a  course 
which  will  prepare  him  to  understand  the  laws  of  his- 
torical development. 

The  History  of  Religion.  This  subject  naturally  be- 
longs to  the  Biblical  department,  whose  chief  topic  is  the 
literature  of  religion.  It  is  one  of  the  broadest  subjects  in 
the  college  curriculum;  so  broad  that  in  universities  it  is 
often  distributed  among  the  specialists  in  Sanskrit,  Ara- 
bic, Greek,  and  other  subjects.  Xo  one  can  cover  the 
entire  field  at  first  hand.  For  a  large  part  of  it  he  must 
stand  upon  the  shoulders  of  others.  A  teacher  of  the  sub- 
ject ought  to  know,  in  some  measure  of  intimacy,  the  lit- 
erature and  language  of  at  least  one  religion  beside  the 
Biblical  religions.  If  he  has  a  technical  knowledge  of 
two  he  may  consider  himself  fortunate.  He  can  hardly 
expect  to  have  read  the  religious  literature  in  Arabic, 
Sanskrit,  Pali,  Chinese  and  ancient  Persian,  yet  he  will 
be  teaching  all  these  and  more.  He  must,  however,  have 
read  widely  and  carefully  in  translation;  but  more  than 
this,  he  must  possess  the  historical  imagination  which 
makes  it  possible  for  him  to  carry  his  classes  with  him 
into  points  of  view  far  different  from  their  own.  He 
must  make  them  think  with  Hindu  philosophers  and  feel 
with  Moslem  mullahs.  Students  of  the  history  of  re- 
ligion must  not  sit  outside  a  religion  and  criticise  it.  If 
that  is  all  that  can  be  done  it  is  doubtful  if  the  subject  is 
worth  study.  They  must  enter  into  its  holy  of  holies 
and  know  why  it  has  commanded  the  services  of  myriads 
of  men  through  centuries  of  time. 


18     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

Much  of  the  time  of  a  class  in  the  history  of  religion 
must  be  given  to  a  mastery  of  the  facts  of  the  subject. 
This,  however,  is  never  the  main  purpose  of  the  course. 
The  study  should  issue  in  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
laws  of  religious  growth  and  decay.  Why  did  a  religion 
appeal?  Why  did  it  spread  to  other  lands  or  remain 
fixed  ?  What  elements  in  it  changed  and  why  ?  What 
makes  a  religion  missionary  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  mysti- 
cism and  ritualism  and  asceticism  in  religion  ?  Under 
what  circumstances  do  religions  decay?  Students  who 
have  asked  such  questions  of  other  religions  are  in  a  posi- 
tion to  understand  the  movements  in  their  own  religion. 
The  bane  of  the  judgment  of  Christianity  in  Christian 
lands  has  been  that  neither  its  critics  nor  its  defenders 
have  had  any  knowledge  of  the  general  laws  of  religious 
evolution.  Incidentals  have  too  often  been  regarded  as  es- 
sentials and  natural  changes  as  disastrous  decay.  The 
study  of  the  history  of  religion  should,  by  developing  a 
scientific  criticism  of  religion,  make  such  ignorant  judg- 
ments impossible  to  educated  persons  in  the  future. 

The  History  of  Christian  Thought.  This  is  in  reality 
a  part  of  the  history  of  religion.  It  is  not  the  technical 
study  of  theology  as  that  subject  is  studied  in  a  theologi- 
cal seminary.  It  is  a  study  of  our  Christian  heritage  of 
thought ;  the  way  it  grew  up,  the  changes  of  religious  em- 
phasis in  the  past  century  and  the  present  trends  of  Chris- 
tian thinking.  Its  aim  is  to  help  the  students  under- 
stand the  Christian  religion,  past  and  present,  and  to  help 
them  adjust  religion  to  the  needs  of  the  new  day  in  which 
they  will  live.  Christianity  is  making  great  changes  of 
emphasis,  even  of  opinion,  but  the  spirit  of  Christ  was 
never  more  regnant  than  it  is  to-day.  What  the  changes 
mean  and  what  is  needed  in  the  immediate  future,  such 
a  course  as  this  ought  to  help  the  student  to  see.  Ko  de- 
partment except  the  Biblical  department  is  likely  to  of- 
fer the  course.     The  Bible  alone  will  not  prepare  the 


Belated  Subjects  19 

teacher  for  it.  He  must  understand  the  doctrines  of  the 
past,  and  most  of  all,  the  driving  force  of  religion  to-day, 
Protestant  and  Catholic,  ritualistic  and  mystical,  individ- 
ual and  social.  If  he  can  interpret  the  Christian  world  to 
his  students  he  will  be  doing  perhaps  his  largest  service 
to  the  kingdom  of  God. 

3.  A  Group  of  Subjects  Interpreting  Biblical  Re- 
ligion. Already,  in  discussing  courses  on  the  history  of 
Christian  thought,  we  have  approached  this  field.  Here 
also  lie  courses  in  Biblical  thought,  in  the  ethics  or  social 
teaching  of  Jesus,  in  the  letters  and  ideas  of  Paul,  and 
much  other  directly  Biblical  material.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  subjects  lying  outside  the  immediate  Biblical 
field. 

Christian  Fundamentals.  Other  names  may  be  used, 
but  imder  any  title  the  essence  of  the  course  is  a  study 
of  the  structural  conceptions  of  the  Christian  view  of 
God  and  the  world  in  their  relation  to  modern  knowl- 
edge and  ethical  and  social  ideals.  Schleiermacher  wrote 
of  "pectoral  theology" — theology  of  the  heart.  This 
course  is  "vital  theology'' — theology  of  the  life.  It  tries  to 
accomplish  for  the  student  much  the  same  as  the  course 
in  the  history  of  Christian  thought — ^to  interpret  re- 
ligion in  terms  of  present  life^ — but  it  does  it  not  by  trac- 
ing the  history  of  Christian  concepts,  but  by  subjecting 
the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  religion  to  the  criticism  of 
reason  in  the  light  of  present  ideals.  How  can  the  man 
of  to-day  interpret  the  Christian  concepts  of  God,  Christ, 
prayer,  the  kingdom  of  God,  social  righteousness  ?  Such 
problems  form  the  content  of  the  course.  The  need  for 
such  a  course  is  great.  In  this  day,  when  we  make  large 
pretense  of  prizing  clear  thinking  on  all  other  subjects, 
even  scholarly  people  are  too  often  content  with  absurdly 
nebulous  notions  in  religion.  Those  interested  in  the  prep- 
aration of  missionaries  and  other  Christian  workers  de- 
mand such  a  course.     Students  respond  to  it  with  readi- 


20     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

ness.  It  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  students  are  not  in- 
terested in  clarifying  their  religious  thinking.  There  are 
few  fields  of  thought  in  "which  they  are  more  interested. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  religion  seems  unreal  to  so  many 
of  them  is  that  they  have  been  led  to  suppose  it  to  be  a 
subject  on  which  clear  thinking  from  modern  points  of 
view  is  no  longer  possible.  A  Christian  college  ought  to 
show  them  that  it  is  possible. 

]^ot  every  good  Bible  teacher,  however,  is  fitted  to 
teach  this  course.  A  knowledge  of  theology,  present  as 
well  as  past,  a  still  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  trends 
of  modern  scientific  and  social  thought,  and  some  apti- 
tude for  philosophic  thinking,  are  needed.  Still  more  is 
needed  the  power  of  sympathy  with  inchoate  thinking, 
with  conceptions  half  grown  or  even  only  coming  to  birth, 
whether  these  be  in  the  minds  of  students  feeling  their 
way  into  religious  light,  or  in  the  growing  consciousness 
of  the  social  world  in  which  we  live  to-day.  The  danger 
is  that  such  a  course  may  be  either  the  easy  study  of 
theology-in-a-book  or  sentimental  generalizings  on  religion 
and  life.  He  who  would  really  help  modern  students 
must  grip  things  deep  down  and  do  hard  thinking  on  the 
profoundest  problems  of  modern  life. 

Christian  Ethics.  This  is  sometimes  treated  as  the 
study  of  Christian  ethical  theory,  sometimes  as  ^'applied 
ethics,"  which  means  Christian  ethical  standards  applied 
to  modern  life.  What  Christianity  demands  in  the  con- 
duct of  life  is  a  question  pressing  for  answer  in  the  mod- 
ern world.  Intelligent  Christianity  must  answer  it  or  con- 
fess failure.  It  is  a  fitting  subject  for  college  study.  But 
this  is  another  subject  which  merely  Biblical  study  will 
not  prepare  a  teacher  to  handle.  What  was  said  in  the 
last  paragraph  about  the  need  of  clear  knowledge  and 
deep  sympathy  with  present  life  and  thought  holds  true 
here  also.  Especially  must  the  teacher  be  in  sympathy 
with  the  best  in  present  social  movements,  and  yet  he 


Related  Subjects  21 

should  not  be  led  away  from  the  plain  facts  of  economic 
law  and  human  tendency  by  a  misty  idealism  out  of  touch 
with  reality,  however  vigorously  it  asserts  its  Christian 
character.  The  world  needs  few  things  more  than  clear 
and  sane  teaching  on  Christian  ethics.  It  can  dispense 
with  nothing  more  easily  than  with  sentimental,  half-in- 
formed theorizing  which  dignifies  benevolent  social  dreams 
with  the  term  Christian.  If  the  teacher  of  the  Bible  is 
ignorant  of  economics  and  sociology  he  will  aid  the  sub- 
ject most  by  letting  it  alone. 

4.  Religious  Education.  This  subject  is  now  com- 
manding much  attention.  It  is  one  of  the  new  subjects, 
only  recently  appearing  in  college  curricula.  As  the  study 
of  the  principles  of  religious  education  it  involves  re- 
ligious and  educational  psychology.  As  the  study  of  the 
methods  of  religious  education  it  demands  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  past  and  present  methods  of  developing  the 
religious  life  in  children  and  youths.  The  teacher  should 
know  Catholic  catechetical  methods  as  well  as  Protestant 
Sunday  Schools.  He  must  keep  himself  informed  regard- 
ing the  rapidly  developing  methods  of  religious  education 
in  the  present ;  and  no  subject  outside  the  kaleidoscope 
of  politics  is  shifting  more  rapidly.  The  teacher  who  is 
able  and  willing  to  meet  th6  exacting  demands  of  this  sub- 
ject and  who  has  the  proper  background  of  psychology 
and  educational  history  can  help  meet  a  very  pressing 
need  by  teaching  it.  It  belongs  with  the  department  of 
education  more  directly  than  with  the  Biblical  depart- 
ment, but  it  seems  to  be  falling  to  the  latter  most  often. 
There  is  a  growing  demand  for  it.  The  danger  is  that 
unprepared  teachers  will,  under  the  pressure  of  this  de- 
mand, take  it  up.  Biblical  knowledge  in  itself  furnishes 
very  little  preparation  for  it.  When  a  teacher  knows 
enough  of  education  to  give  a  course  in  its  principles  then 
he  has  the  basis  for  special  preparation  to  teach  religious 
education. 


22     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

5.  A  Group  of  Linguistic  Subjects.  In  some  colleges 
Biblical  Greek  and  Hebrew  are  offered.  Biblical  Greek 
may  often  be  taught  better  by  the  Greek  department,  if 
that  department  possesses  a  teacher  interested  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  thought  as  well  as  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  new  discoveries  of  Egyptian  Greek 
papyri  have  thrown  so  much  light  on  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  that  its  proper  teaching  calls  for  more 
recent  knowledge  than  can  be  found  in  the  older  books. 

Hebrew  is  not  likely  to  be  coveted  by  any  other  depart- 
ment, nor  are  classes  in  it  likely  to  be  large.  Tor  one 
who  loves  language  teaching  even  a  few  students  offer  a 
rewarding  work.  Hebrew  is  an  appropriate  college  sub- 
ject, both  for  those  who  propose  to  go  on  with  Biblical 
studies  and  for  the  larger  number  interested  in  linguis- 
tics. Students  of  language  ought  to  study  some  language 
outside  the  Aryan  group.  The  best  and  easiest  language 
for  comparison  is  Hebrew.  It  has  its  intrinsic  interest. 
It  is  not  difficult,  as  languages  go.  It  is  far  easier  than 
Arabic,  for  instance.  A  year's  study  of  it  will  yield  much 
more  command  of  its  literature  than  a  year's  study  of 
Greek  or  Sanskrit.  As  a  means  of  general  linguistic  cul- 
ture Hebrew  might  well  command  more  interest  than  it 
does  at  present. 

It  is  obvious  that  no  one  teacher  can  teach  all  these 
subjects.  It  is  not  necessary  that  any  one  institution 
should  offer  them  all.  In  general,  a  department  ought  to 
offer  some  subject  outside  strictly  Biblical  work.  The 
needs  of  present  life  call  for  it.  A  teacher  cannot  usually 
handle,  in  addition  to  Biblical  work,  more  than  one  or 
two  of  the  subjects  listed;  the  demands  for  preparation 
and  for  keeping  abreast  of  current  advances  are  too  great. 
If  he  can,  however,  teach  adequately  sonie  subject  of  vital 
present  interest  akin  to  his  Biblical  work,  he  will  do  a 
needed  service  to  Christian  life  and  will  bring  to  his  Bible 
study  the  richness  of  his  contact  with  modern  prob- 
lems. 


Qualities  ITeeded  in  the  Biblical  Teacher      23 


y.    Qualities  ^Needed  in  the  Biblical  Teachee 

A  work  so  exacting  is  of  necessity  exacting  in  its  de- 
mands of  qualification  and  equipment/  Personality 
counts  for  more  in  the  teaching  of  Bible  than  in  most  sub- 
jects. Another  quality  specially  needed  is  initiative  and 
resourcefulness.  The  subject  is  new  in  colleges.  The 
traditions  of  its  teaching  are  still  unformed.  Experi- 
ments must  be  tried.  Methods  better  than  any  yet  de- 
vised will  still  be  discovered.  Few  college  subjects  offer 
so  much  field  for  the  spirit  of  pioneering.  The  subject 
should  appeal  to  the  person  who  loves  to  follow  his  own 
paths,  provided  he  has  the  skill  to  make  them  attractive 
paths  to  others.  For  the  rest,  the  qualities  called  for  are 
those  which  make  a  successful  teacher  anywhere;  power 
of  sympathy,  patience  with  slow  and  even  with  careless 
students,  ability  for  inspired  leadership,  capacity  to  think 
clearly  and  to  express  thought  simply,  and  a  love  of  gain- 
ing and  imparting  knowledge.  The  teacher  must  be  far 
more  than  a  mere  student.  Ease  of  gaining  knowledge 
does  not  in  itself  make  a  teacher.  It  may  even  be  a 
hindrance,  for  it  may  cause  a  feeling  of  impatient  con- 
tempt for  those  more  slow  in  mental  processes.  The  good 
teacher  usually  finds  himself  thinking  more  of  his  stu- 
dents and  of  how  he  may  make  his  subject  plain  to  them, 
as  the  years  go  on.  The  class  room  is  a  delight,  not  a 
bore  to  him.  He  finds  the  hour  all  too  short.  He  counts 
the  recitation  a  failure  if  he  has  not  carried  the  interest 
of  every  student  every  minute.  He  cultivates  simplicity, 
for  he  knows  that  obscurity  is  not  profundity.  In  a  great 
subject  he  chooses  the  essentials  for  teaching.  His  most 
carefully  considered  problem  is  what  to  leave  out.     He 

*  See  an  excellent  article  on  Training  the  College  Teacher  of 
Biblical  Literature  by  Professor  C.  F.  Kent,  in  Religious  Education, 
Vol.  X,  No.  4,  pp.  327-332.  The  same  number  contains  other  arti- 
cles of  interest  to  the  candidate  for  Biblical  teaching. 


24     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

knows  that  sooner  or  later  every  subject  relates  itself  to 
life.  He  desires  above  all  two  things:  that  the  student 
shall  understand  the  subject,  and  that  he  shall  see  its  rela- 
tion to  life.  In  short,  a  good  teacher  loves  to  teach.  That 
is  the  quality  with  "which  he  begins.  Then  he  takes  in- 
finite pains  with  his  own  scholarship  and  with  his  teach- 
ing methods.  These  things  count  more  than  mere  scholar- 
ship in  the  success  of  a  teacher. 

VI.    Scholastic  Peeparation  for  the  Biblical 
Teacher 

Scholastic  preparation  for  this  field  of  teaching  may 
well  begin  in  college.  It  should  of  course  include  Latin 
and  Greek,  the  latter  with  especial  thoroughness.  Like 
the  specialist  in  all  fields,  the  teacher  of  Bible  needs 
French  and  German.  If  he  can  begin  Hebrew  in  college 
that  "will  save  time  later,  but  it  should  not  be  at  the  expense 
of  other  essentials.  History,  especially  Ancient  and  Ori- 
ental, is  necessary,  and  still  more  necessary  is  familiarity 
with  the  spirit  and  method  of  modern  historical  study. 
Also  indispensable  are  the  methods  of  literary  criticism 
and  the  power  of  literary  appreciation,  for  these  belong 
to  all  literature  alike.  A  course  in  some  natural  science 
should  give  the  spirit  of  modern  scientific  study.  The 
history  of  philosophy  is  valuable,  and,  for  teaching  the 
structure  of  Christian  thought,  necessary.  Ethics  will  be 
needed  for  the  study  of  Biblical  ethics.  One  of  the  fields 
of  greatest  interest  in  Biblical  studies  at  present  is  the 
social  ethics  of  the  Bible,  and  especially  of  Jesus.  A 
knowledge  of  present  social  theories  is  essential  for  com- 
parison. If  the  history  of  religion  or  religious  education 
can  be  studied  it  will  be  helpful. 

Some  of  these  subjects  must  be  postponed  to  the  years 
of  graduate  study.  For  graduate  study  two  plans  are  open. 
The  student  may  go  to  a  theological  school.  If  this  be  the 
decision  a  school  should  be  chosen  which  has  special  facili- 


Scholastic  Prepaeatiok  for  the  Teacher      25 

ties  for  preparation  for  teaching.  So  much  special  prepa- 
ration is  necessary  that  the  ordinary  studies  best  fitted  for 
the  preacher  will  not  allow  time  for  what  is  needed.  The 
teacher  is  not  a  preacher  and  the  preparation  for  the  two, 
identical  at  some  points,  is  diverse  at  others.  The  second 
plan  is  to  seek  preparation  at  one  of  the  Universities 
which  emphasize  Biblical  studies.  Formerly  such  studies 
could  only  be  found  in  a  theological  school ;  now  several 
of  the  larger  universities  provide  excellent  graduate  work 
in  this  field.  Personal  circumstances  must  decide  which 
of  these  two  plans  is  followed.  If  the  theological  school  is 
chosen,  it  opens  the  way  for  the  teacher  to  add  to  his  teach- 
ing work  occasional  service  in  the  pulpit.  He  must  never 
yield  to  the  temptation  of  allowing  this  to  burden  his 
teaching.  Especially  must  he  refuse  to  take  the  care  of 
a  church  during  his  teaching  year.  Time  and  strength 
do  not  allow  a  man  to  be  both  teacher  and  pastor.  If  he 
has  chosen  to  put  his  life  into  his  class  room  he  must  re- 
nounce the  joys  of  the  pastorate.  His  preaching  must  be 
incidental  and  secondary,  only  to  help  out  churches  and 
ministerial  friends  in  time  of  need.  Nor  must  he  allow 
his  preparation  to  give  him  the  preaching  attitude  toward 
the  Bible,  the  homiletical  type  of  mind.  He  must  not  be 
looking  for  "lessons"  and  ''applications."  He  must  rather 
search  to  find  exactly  what  the  writers  of  these  books  were 
trying  to  say. 

The  Bible  teacher  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
Hebrew^,  Biblical  Aramaic  and  Hellenistic  Greek.  The 
present  tendency  is  to  minimize  these  in  a  pastor's  prepa- 
ration— morels  the  pity.  But  the  teacher  must  never  omit 
them.  Can  you  imagine  a  man  devoting  his  life  to  teach- 
ing French  literature  with  no  knowledge  of  French  ?  Of 
course  there  can  be  no  Biblical  scholarship  worthy  the 
name  without  a  knowledge  of  the  Biblical  languages.  The 
teacher,  if  possessed  of  any  particular  linguistic  ability, 
should  have  an  especially  thorough  knowledge  of  either 
Hebrew  or  Hellenistic  Greek.     If  specializing  in  Hebrew 


26     Biblical  Teaching  in  School  and  College 

he  should  know  at  least  one  other  Semitic  language  for 
comparison;  Arabic  for  its  richness  of  literature  and  vo- 
cabulary, or  Assyrian  for  its  light  on  the  Old  Testament, 
or  Syriac  for  its  use  in  !New  Testament  versions.  If  spe- 
cializing in  Hellenistic  Greek  he  should  read  largely  in 
the  Septuagint  and  in  the  Apostolic  fathers  and  in  the 
newly  discovered  Greek  writings  of  the  Hellenistic  period 
in  Egypt.  In  most  college  work  this  knowledge  is  not  for 
direct  teaching,  but  for  the  background  and  foundation 
of  his  own  scholarly  work.  Further  foundation  should  be 
laid  in  familiarity  with  Oriental  geography  and  history, 
especially  of  the  Semitic  races;  the  course  of  events  and 
their  causes;  the  customs,  religious  and  political  ideas, 
habits  of  thought,  and  national  points  of  view  at  the  dif- 
ferent stages  of  the  Semitic  development.  He  must  know 
Babylonian  literature  and  law  for  comparison  with  the 
Bible.  In  connection  with  the  l^ew  Testament  he  must 
know  Philo  and  Jewish-Alexandrian  thought  and  the  po- 
litical and  social  life  of  the  early  Christian  world. 

He  should  emphasize  Hebrew  History  and  Biblical  In- 
troduction. The  great  body  of  his  teaching  is  likely  to  lie 
within  these  fields.  He  should  know  especially  the  spirit 
and  method  of  prophecy;  the  prophetic  and  priestly  edit- 
ing of  ancient  tradition  and  more  recent  story  in  the  nar- 
rative books;  the  point  of  view  of  the  Hebrew  sages,  the 
writers  of  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Ecclesiasticus  and 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon;  the  origin,  growth  and  contents 
of  Apocalyptic  Literature,  Biblical  and  extra-Biblical ;  the 
thrilling  history  of  the  Maccabees ;  the  intricacies  of  Gos- 
pel relations;  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  the  thought  of 
Paul.  These  are  only  the  larger  outlines  of  the  Biblical 
subjects  which  must  be  knovni  to  the  teacher.  Even  these 
will  have  to  be,  at  some  points,  merely  sketched  in  dur- 
ing his  preparation  and  filled  out  later.  Above  all,  his 
study  must  yield  him  on  one  hand  power  to  appreciate 
and  ability  to  work  with  the  purpose  and  method  of  mod- 
ern Biblical  scholarship,  and  on  the  other,  an  apprecia- 


Scholastic  Preparation  for  the  Teacher      27 

tion  of  the  spiritual  content  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  abid- 
ing value  of  its  religious  principles  in  the  life  of  all  the 
ages.  It  is  this  abiding  value  "which  takes  the  Bible  out 
of  mere  ancient  literature  and  sets  it  in  the  center  of 
modern  life. 

In  speaking  above  of  the  cognate  subjects  which  some- 
times fall  to  the  college  teacher  of  Bible,  something  was 
said  regarding  the  preparation  needed  to  teach  them. 
Each  has  its  own  field  and  might  well  call  for  as  extensive 
preparation  as  Bible  teaching  itself. 

It  will  be  seen  that  an  adequate  preparation  to  teach 
the  Bible  is  more  than  the  equivalent  of  a  Ph.D.  course  in 
the  best  universities,  ^ow  a  doctorate  has  no  scholastic 
magic  of  its  own.  iN'either  if  he  has  a  Ph.  D.  is  a  teacher 
the  better  nor  if  he  has  it  not  is  he  the  worse,  but  it  is  at 
present  in  America  a  sort  of  hall-mark  of  scholarship. 
The  teacher  of  the  Bible  cannot  afford  to  work  with  a 
lower  grade  of  scholarship  than  that  for  which  it  stands. 
But  no  matter  how  thorough  his  knowledge  of  his  subject, 
he  will  say  with  the  scientist  Agassiz,  ^'The  longer  I  live 
the  more  I  know  that  I  know  nothing." 


PAKT  II 

EXECUTIVES  EOE  CHKISTIAN  E:N^TEKPRISES 

By 
D WIGHT  H.  Day 


MODERN  CHRISTIAN 
CALLINGS 

EXECUTIVES  FOE  CHRISTIAN  ENTERPEISES 

EXECUTIVE  Officers  are  necessary  in  any  organized 
enterprise  requiring  administration,  from  a  Presi- 
dent for  the  United  States  to  an  Executive  Secretary 
for  a  smaU  Committee, — if  that  Committee  proposes  to  do 
things.  Some  one,  duly  chosen,  must  be  regularly  availa- 
ble, charged  with  the  responsibility  of  carrying  out  the  pro- 
gram and  decisions  of  the  body  behind  him,  be  it  Gov- 
ernment, Board  of  Directors,  Trustees,  or  Committeemen. 

Thus,  Christian  enterprises,  some  of  them  organized  on 
a  vast  scale,  with  connections  in  every  country  of  the  globe, 
must  have  their  Executives,  generally  called  Secretaries 
and  Treasurers.  The  best  known  and  strongest  of  these 
avowedly  Christian  organizations  are  the  Boards  or  Ex- 
ecutive Committees  established  by  the  Protestant  Church 
bodies  or  Denominations  for  conducting  and  supervising 
the  work  which  they  as  Church  bodies  desire  to  promote 
and  support.  The  activities  thus  represented  cover  a  wide 
field,  in  fact  their  field  is  world-wide. 

There  are  Boards  of  Domestic  or  Home  Missions,  with 
field  representatives  scattered  from  Point  Barrow,  Alaska, 
the  most  northerly  Mission  station  in  the  world,  to  the 
tropical  possessions  of  the  United  States  in  Porto  Rico 
and  Panama.  They  work  among  the  various  foreign 
groups  in  Continental  United  States,  among  the  Indians 
and  rural  communities,  among  backward  and  neglected 
people,  such  as  the  Whites  in  the  Southern  Mountains, 
in  great  industrial  centers  and  among  special  labor  groups, 

3 


4  Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises 

like  that  of  the  lumber- jacks  of  the  I^orthwest.  In  some 
cases  these  Home  Mission  Boards  are  charged  also  with 
work  among  the  Negroes  in  the  United  States,  while  in 
others  special  Boards  are  set  up  for  this  purpose.  Some 
of  the  Home  Mission  Boards  are  authorized  to  extend  their 
activities  to  South  America.  Other  Church  Boards  and 
Agencies  organized  to  promote  special  lines  of  activity 
or  to  take  charge  of  special  funds  would  include  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Boards  of  Education,  charged  with  establishing  and 
maintaining  denominational  Colleges,  Boards  of  Aid  for 
Ministers  of  the  Churches  and  their  families,  Trustees 
of  Pension  Funds  and  of  Insurance  Eunds  for  the  Min- 
istry, Boards  organized  especially  to  aid  in  the  erection 
of  Churches  in  new  or  sparsely-settled  communities, 
Boards  for  the  printing  and  publication  of  Christian  litera- 
ture, some  of  them  owning  large  establishments.  Boards 
of  Temperance,  Boards  or  Committees  on  Evangelism, 
Sabbath  Observance,  on  Men's  Work  in  the  Churches, — 
a  great  variety  of  administrative  agencies,  all  deriving 
their  authority  from  the  various  denominational  Church 
bodies. 

Perhaps  the  largest  and  most  influential  group  among 
these  Church  enterprises  is  that  representing  Eoreign  Mis- 
sions. At  the  meeting  of  the  Eoreign  Missions  Conference 
of  North  America,  held  in  January  1922,  sixty-two  Eor- 
eign Mission  Boards  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
were  represented  by  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  regular 
delegates,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  corresponding 
members,  who  assembled  in  their  annual  meeting  for  the 
consideration  and  discussion  of  common  problems.  These 
North  American  Boards  now  expend  more  than  $40,000,- 
000  in  Eoreign  Mission  work  annually,  and  maintaili  on 
the  foreign  field  some  13,000  missionaries. 

Concerning  Eoreign  Mission  administrators,  one  writer 
says :  ^  "The  conduct  of  Missions  in  heathen  and  Moham- 

1  "The  Foreign  Missionary,"  Arthur  J.  Brown. 


Executives  foe  Cheistian  Enteepeises  5 

medan  countries  has  risen  to  the  dignity  of  a  science,  only 
to  be  learned  by  long  and  continuous  practice,  discussion, 
reading  and  reflection;  it  is  the  occupation  of  the  whole 
life,  and  of  many  hours  of  each  day  of  many  able  men 
selected  for  the  particular  purpose  by  the  turn  of  their 
own  minds,  and  the  conviction  of  their  colleagues  that  they 
have  a  special  fitness  for  the  duty." 

Dr.  William  W.  Clarke  says  that  ^'in  respect  of  re- 
sponsibility and  laboriousness,  there  is  scarcely  any  other 
Christian  service  that  is  comparable  to  that  of  the  officers 
of  such  Societies.  Foreign  Mission  (Board)  Secretaries 
have  to  conduct  a  work  of  which  the  delicacy  and  difficulty 
are  very  largely  unappreciated.  It  can  scarcely  be  other- 
wise, for  very  few  persons  know  missionary  operations 
from  the  outside,  and  most  Christians  have  no  experience 
that  would  help  them  to  enter  into  the  problems  of  the 
Missionary  Board."  ^ 

It  is,  indeed,  true  that  a  very  wide  range  of  responsi- 
bility gives  to  these  Executive  Officers  opportunity  for 
service  which,  in  its  variety,  its  inspirations,  and  its  solid 
satisfactions,  it  would  be  difficult  to  match.  ^'There  is 
probably  no  other  organization  in  the  world,"  said  Dr.  Ed- 
win M.  Bliss,  "except  a  national  government,  that  carries 
on  so  varied  and  as  important  lines  of  business  as  does 
a  Foreign  Missionary  Society." 

It  becomes  necessary,  however,  to  go  deeper  than  these 
generalizations,  especially  if  it  is  true  that  few  know 
anything  about  Foreign  Mission  administration  from  the 
outside,  and  if  most  Christians  have  had  no  experience 
with  the  problems  involved.  'No  comparison  can  be  made 
between  the  work  of  the  Executives  of  such  organizations 
and  that  of  other  callings  or  professions  until  one  under- 
stands more  definitely  what  the  various  phases  of  the  work 
are  and  what  is  expected  of  the  incumbent  of  the  executive 
position. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  as  the  Foreign  Mission  enter- 
1  "A  Study  of  Christian  Missions." 


6  Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises 

prise  is  the  largest  and  most  inclusive  with,  regard  to  the 
scope  of  its  activities  of  any  of  the  organizations  in  the 
category  of  Christian  enterprises,  a  description  of  the  de- 
tails of  the  work  covered  by  the  Executive  Officers  of  a 
typical  Foreign  Mission  Board  will,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, include  what  might  be  written  about  that  of  any 
or  all  the  other  Boards  and  Agencies.  This  would  include 
a  great  institution  like  the  American  Bible  Society  as  well, 
more  than  one  hundred  years  old,  which  sends  the  Bible 
out  to  all  the  world  at  the  rate  of  5,000,000  volumes  a  year. 
Modifications  would  need  to  be  made  in  the  case  of 
this  or  that  organization;  one  would  include  a  certain 
phase  of  work,  and  another  some  other  phase,  but  all  have 
much  in  common  especially  in  dealing  with  their  support- 
ing constituencies,  in  their  promotional  work,  and  in  their 
finance  and  banking  practice.  A  large  Foreign  Board 
administers  practically  every  kind  of  work  abroad  that  is 
conducted  by  all  the  other  Boards  and  Agencies  at  home, 
and  does  it  thousands  of  miles  distant  from  the  areas  where 
the  impact  is  made.  It  does  this  through  the  media  of 
many  strange  languages  and  dialects  and  with  the  help 
of  the  natives  of  each  country  working  among  their 
own  people  under  the  supervision  and  direction,  in  the 
initial  stages,  of  leaders  or  missionaries  sent  out  for  that 
purpose.  Christian  education  under  one  Board,  for  in- 
stance, is  represented  by  1,800  Schools  and  Colleges, 
planted  in  fifteen  foreign  countries.  Medical  and  surgical 
work,  public  health  and  hygiene,  sanitation  and  dietetics 
radiate  from  two  hundred  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
Evangelism  and  the  establishing  of  Churches  is  under  the 
care  of  3,000  native  evangelists  and  ministers  supported 
by  a  native  Christian  constituency  of  a  million  members. 
Publishing  of  Christian  literature  centers  in  eight  great 
Printing  Presses,  strategically  placed  throughout  Asia, 
which  pour  forth  a  hundred  million  pages  each  year.  The 
cause  of  temperance  is  promoted,  orphanages  and  rescue 
homes  are  maintained,  schools  for  the  blind  and  for  the 


Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises  7 

deaf  are  established.  Lepers  are  segregated  from  the  pop- 
ulation and  are  given  asylum  in  institutions  specially  pro- 
vided. Famine  funds  are  raised  and  administered,  epi- 
demics are  fought  and  floods  are  dealt  with  and  studied 
by  agricultural  and  forestry  schools,  with  a  view  to  their 
prevention.  All  these  lines  of  activity  tie  up  in  the  final 
analysis  to  the  administrators  and  executives  in  the  head 
offices  in  the  homeland.  These  men  and  women  must 
have  both  knowledge  and  experience,  in  some  measure  at 
least,  of  all  these  endeavors,  and  must  be  able  to  advise 
their  Boards  of  Directors  and  the  field  representatives  con- 
cerning them. 

The  mass  of  correspondence  is  immense,  emanating  from 
twenty-seven  separate  and  distinct  Missions  and  from 
1,600  missionaries  in  the  case  of  the  typical  Board  under 
examination,  and  this  relates  only  to  the  foreign  side 
of  the  work.  On  the  other  side  is  the  constituency  in 
the  homeland,  1,700,000  Church  members,  in  10,000 
Churches,  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  whom  are  inter- 
ested in  the  service  and  are  supporting  it,  and  hence  con- 
tribute a  heavy  grist  of  mail.  This  runs  from  fifty  to  a 
thousand  letters  a  day  which  are  distributed  among  the 
various  executives  and  departments  according  to  the  divi- 
sion of  work  among  them.  The  bulk  of  the  mail  is  made 
up  of  remittances  in  the  form  of  checks,  drafts,  money 
orders,  cash  and  credit  items,  each  one  of  which  must  be 
dealt  with  in  five  distinct  and  separate  operations  before 
the  receipt  for  it  is  committed  to  the  Post  Office  for  de- 
livery to  the  donor ;  but  letters  on  special  problems  in  the 
Missions,  on  general  Mission  policy,  on  matters  relating 
to  the  welfare  of  the  Missionary  force,  on  the  relations 
between  Missions  and  Governments,  on  cooperative  and 
union  enterprises  with  similar  Boards,  such  as  the  twelve 
or  more  union  Colleges  and  Universities,  on  questions  of 
denominational  Church  policy,  which  include  the  interests 
of  Foreign  Missions,  on  the  presentation  of  the  cause  to 
the  people  at  home  by  means  of  books,  current  literature 


iB22 


8  Executives  foe  Cheistian  Enteepeises 

and  the  public  platform^ — all  furnish  a  voluminous  cor- 
respondence which  can  scarcely  be  digested  during  regular 
hours.  Few  executive  officers  allied  with  these  interests 
expect  to  compass  their  work  except  bj  continuing  it  in 
their  homes  during  the  evening,  as  thousands  of  workers 
in  other  lines  do  and  they  are  occasionally  accused  of 
breaking  the  Fourth  Commandment  because  they  prosecute 
the  same  lines  on  the  Sabbath.  Whether  their  accusers 
are  to  be  classed  with  the  mint  and  anise  tithers  of  Christ's 
time,  \vho  ignored  the  spirit  of  the  law  in  their  meticulous 
observance  of  its  letter,  or  whether  the  indictment  is  indeed 
a  valid  one  on  the  ground  of  their  doing  work  on  the 
Sabbath  Day,  which  must  be  regarded  as  secular  because 
they  are  doing  it  also  on  the  other  days  of  the  week,  may 
wisely  be  left  to  the  conscience  of  the  individuals  con- 
cerned. 

There  are  roughly  three  categories  into  which  the  prob- 
lems arising  on  the  field  and  referred  to  the  Home  Office 
may  be  divided.  First,  questions  of  Mission  policy  and 
procedure;  second,  matters  of  emergency,  largely  relating 
to  the  work  of  individual  missionaries  or  their  health,  and 
third,  appeals  for  funds  for  the  extension  of  the  work 
or  for  the  strengthening  of  that  already  established.  The 
executive  in  the  administrative  office  must  analyze  a  pro- 
posal affecting  Mission  policy  and  must  present  the  con- 
siderations which  affect  it,  pro  and  con,  to  his  colleagues 
in  a  Council  or  Cabinet  and  then  to  the  Board  itself  for 
decision.  The  decision  must  rest  not  only  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  Treasury,  but  upon  the  great  body  of  ex- 
perience and  tradition  built  up  through  a  hundred  years 
of  history,  and  the  foreign  mission  administrator  must 
be  familiar  with  the  principles  and  practice  of  Foreipi 
Missions  which  have  been  successfully  applied,  as  well 
as  with  the  mistakes  which  have  caused  loss  and  some- 
times disaster.  For  instance,  in  a  field  where  the  Chris- 
tian community  has  grown  to  large  proportions,  shall  the 
Schools  partly  supported  by  Mission  funds  accept  the  chil- 


Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises  9 

dren  of  native  Christians  only,  or  shall  the  children  of 
non-Christians  and  heathen  parents  also  be  accepted  ?  On 
this  question  a  Mission  took  one  view  and  its  Secretary 
and  Board  the  other.  The  historic  precedents  and  inter- 
pretations of  experience  were  presented  by  the  executive 
in  charge  of  the  correspondence  with  the  Mission  con- 
cerned. 

What  proportion  of  the  available  funds  shall  be  devoted 
to  the  evangelistic  work  in  a  district  and  what  to  the  edu- 
cational and  to  the  medical  ?  What  degree  of  responsi- 
bility and  power  shall  be  passed  over  to  the  rising  Churches 
of  Christ  in  the  Mission  field  with  reference  to  the  work 
still  to  be  done,  and  what  shall  be  the  criterion  as  to  just 
when  this  transfer  shall  take  place?  Such  questions  rep- 
resent live  issues  to  the  Missions  on  the  field,  and  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  they  are  given  a  large  degree  of 
autonomy  in  the  conduct  of  the  work  they  look  to  the  Sec- 
retary and  the  Board  at  home  for  guidance  and  for  final 
decisions  in  such  matters.  Emergency  cases  may  largely 
be  handled  in  the  light  of  a  body  of  rules  and  regulations 
which  has  gTown  up  through  the  years  covering  similar 
cases  and  in  conformity  with  precedents  which  have  been 
established.  What  are  the  conditions  precedent  to  the 
withdrawal  from  the  field  on  sick  leave  ?  If  a  missionary 
proves  to  be  a  misfit,  what  steps  can  be  taken  to  prove 
the  fact  to  him,  in  case  he  does  not  discover  it  himself, 
and  secure  his  resignation  or  transfer  to  some  other  work  ? 
In  dealing  with  these  problems  of  the  personnel  the  ad- 
ministrative officer  at  home  is  more  than  an  interpreter 
of  rules,  although  he  must  be  that.  He  is  the  sympathetic 
friend  in  whom  the  troubled  one  confides  and  the  counselor 
to  advise  in  the  presence  of  anxiety  or  doubt.  Here  is  a 
missionary  with  a  wife  and  two  or  three  children  of  school 
age  at  home  on  furlough.  The  children  ought  to  remain 
in  the  United  States  to  complete  their  education.  Shall 
the  husband  and  father  return  to  the  field  alone,  leaving 
]the  wife  and  mother  to  care  for  the  children,  or  shall 


10         Executives  for  Christiai^  Enterprises 

the  children  be  placed  in  boarding  schools  while  both  wife 
and  husband  return  to  the  field,  or  shall  the  husband  re- 
sign trom  his  work  as  a  missionary  and  remain  with  his 
family  ?  This  problem  is  sure  to  involve  a  good  deal  of 
anguish  of  soul,  not  only  for  the  missionary,  but  for  the 
administrative  officer  having  charge  of  the  Mission  to 
which  he  belongs. 

Or  a  young  worker  on  the  field  finds  his  faith  gone; 
he  no  longer  has  zeal  in  his  work.  He  had  thought  that 
he  believed  in  God  and  His  revelation  in  Jesus  Christ, 
but  he  must  have  been  mistaken;  at  least  he  no  longer 
possesses  such  belief  and  he  doesn't  feel  happy  nor  honest 
in  retaining  his  position — perhaps  in  one  of  the  Schools 
or  Colleges.  He  can't,  somehow,  tell  his  colleagues  on 
the  field,  but  he  writes  to  his  secretary  at  home,  and  lays 
bare  his  heart  in  even  deeper  anguish  than  his  brother 
with  the  growing  family.  Whatever  fund  of  experience 
and  wisdom  the  executive  may  possess  he  will  regard  it 
as  inadequate  for  this  draft  upon  it.  Is  the  doctrine  of 
the  perseverance  of  the  saints  a  myth,  or  is  the  yoimg 
man  temporarily  thrown  off  his  balance  by  over-wrought 
nerves  ?  Perhaps  he  needs  only  a  three  months'  vacation 
in  a  cooler  climate.  Countless  personal  problems  arise 
nearer  home  in  connection  with  the  young  men  and  women 
volunteers  who  have  registered  as  candidates  for  mis- 
sionary service  abroad.  The  roster  of  one  Board  contains 
5,000  names  of  such  young  people  in  the  midst  of  their 
preparation,  or  carrying  on  work  temporarily  at  home  until 
the  conditions  shall  warrant  their  appointment  and  assign- 
ment to  a  Mission  abroad.  Every  executive  officer  could 
bear  testimony  to  the  inspiration  of  knowing  and  dealing 
with  these  devoted  young  spirits.  The  glow  on  the  face 
of  a  young  engineer,  who  on  his  knees  in  prayer  finally 
came  to  his  decision  to  go  to  China  as  a  missionary, 
abundantly  compensates  the  executive  officer  who  knelt 
with  him  for  other  moments  and  days  of  routine  work, 
necessarily   devoid   of   any   inherent    inspiration.      Fur- 


Executives  for  Christian-  Enterprises         11 

loughed  missionaries  from  every  country  of  the  world 
having  crossed  the  seven  seas  pass  through  the  executive 
offices  to  their  havens  in  the  homeland,  bringing  not  only 
their  personal  problems  and  their  plans  and  hopes  for 
some  particular  work  on  the  field  which  they  want  to 
discuss  and  in  all  of  which  the  executive  officer  is  happy 
to  share,  but  also  direct  and  reliable  information  cen- 
cerning  political,  social,  economic  and  religious  conditions 
in  the  countries  where  they  have  been  working.  The  editor 
of  a  well-known  magazine  published  in  l^ew  York  called 
at  the  offices  of  a  Board  and  asked  whether  by  any  chance 
help  could  be  given  her  in  connection  with  an  article  which 
she  was  expecting  to  publish  on  ^'Tobacco  Smoking  in 
Asia."  She  asked  particularly  about  smoking  in  Korea  and 
without  much  hope  wondered  whether  some  photogTaphs  of 
native  types  which  she  had  secured  could  be  identified  and 
explained.  Within  a  few  minutes  she  was  given  a  full 
and  accurate  statement  on  the  subject  and  proper  legends 
for  the  pictures.  Then  with  increasing  surprise  and  grati- 
tude on  the  part  of  the  editor  exact  information  was  given 
her  regarding  similar  conditions  in  Mesopotamia,  China 
and  Siam.  It  had  been  possible  immediately  to  get  facts 
from  first  hand  observers  which  otherwise  it  might  have 
taken  months  and  much  correspondence  to  secure. 

The  third  category  among  the  problems  arising  on  the 
field  and  referred  to  executive  officers  and  Boards  com- 
prises the  needs  and  appeals  for  funds.  Foreign  Mission 
Boards  long  ago  adopted  the  Budget  System  for  financing 
current  needs  and  the  established  work  (anticipating  by 
many  decades  the  Government  of  the  United  States  in  this 
regard),  but  even  Budgets,  efficient  and  economical  as  they 
are,  have  their  difficulties  as  both  the  Boards  and  the  Gov- 
ernment have  discovered ;  and  in  their  ability  to  pare  down 
and  eliminate  unessential  items  the  officers  of  the  Govern- 
ment may  well  envy  the  executives  of  the  Boards.  These 
executives  must  bring  the  total  Budget,  made  up  of  the 
estimates  from  all  the  Missions,  within  the  limits  of  rea- 


12         Executives  foe  Christian  Enterprises 

sonable  expectations  of  receipts  from  the  constituency. 
Eunds  are  appropriated  covering  the  Budget  as  finally 
approved  and  the  Missions  are  free  to  expend  the  money 
during  the  fiscal  year  on  the  work  outlined.  This  system 
saves  the  missionary  from  any  dread  lest  the  funds  which 
he  requires  for  the  work  or  for  any  institution  under  his 
care  will  not  be  forthcoming  and  enables  him  to  plan  for 
it  in  the  confidence  that  it  will  not  be  suddenly  interrupted 
or  embarrassed  for  lack  of  current  support.  However, 
there  are  always  a  multitude  of  needs  that  cannot  be  cov- 
ered within  the  Budget  and  these  the  Missions  carefully 
sift  and  present  to  the  Board  through  their  executives. 
In  large  part  these  special  items  represent  proposed  addi- 
tions to  property  and  equipment  and  the  cost  of  planting 
new  Mission  stations  and  otherwise  extending  the  work. 
A  Board  with  a  Budget  of  $4,500,000.00  received  Prop- 
erty Lists  totaling  $9,000,000.00,  all  itemized  and  de- 
scribed in  detail. 

No  executive  can  escape  the  responsibility  which  rests 
upon  him  for  securing  the  funds  required.  If  he  is  wise 
he  will  not  attempt  to  do  so,  nor  shrink  from  a  task  which 
will  open  to  him  large  opportunities  for  service.  He  must 
take  his  stand  upon  his  belief  in  the  cause  and  in  the 
merits  of  the  appeal  and  he  will  find  that  every  talent 
of  which  he  may  be  the  possessor  may  not  only  be  em- 
ployed, but  will  be  developed  and  enlarged.  He  will  be 
forced  irresistibly  out  of  his  office  to  face  his  share  of  the 
public  in  order  that  he  may  give  information  and  instruc- 
tion and  perhaps  impart  inspiration  in  matters  which 
have  come  to  be  of  vital  concern  to  him.  Erom  his  vantage 
point  he  sees  on  the  one  hand  a  more  or  less  thoughtless, 
ease-and-pleasure-loving  people,  enjoying  luxuries  without 
thanksgiving,  provincial,  living  in  a  false  sense  of  isolated 
security  without  responsibility  to  the  rest  of  mankind, 
and  on  the  other  he  sees  the  world  in  need;  in  need  of 
what  the  fortunate  can  with  so  little  individual  sacrifice 
be  the  means  of  supplying.     He  sees  also  the  Eoreign 


Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises         13 

Missionary  at  his  work,  putting  into  it  his  whole  life, 
one  hundred  per  cent,  and  yet  his  efficiency  cut  down  to 
perhaps  eighty  per  cent  of  capacity  for  lack  of  suitable 
and  adequate  equipment.  This  condition  obtains  far  too 
frequently  and  the  Board  executive  realizes  more  vividly 
than  any  one  else,  than  even  the  missionary  himself,  what 
the  cure  is.  So  he  prepares  himself  by  reading,  study  and 
travel  to  educate  the  constituency  to  an  appreciation  of 
its  responsibilities  and  opportunities,  and  to  a  larger  meas- 
ure of  financial  support.  His  reading  and  study  will  cover 
a  wide  range,  for  the  century  and  a  quarter  of  modern 
Missions  have  produced  a  literature  rich  in  biography,  in 
the  history  of  nations  developing  under  the  inspiration 
of  Christian  Missions  and  in  accounts  of  the  various  poli- 
cies followed  throughout  the  experimental  stages  of  the 
Missionary  enterprise.  It  must  not  be  all  historical  read- 
ing, but  current  books  and  magazines  must  be  given  their 
place  in  the  time  and  study  of  the  executive.  The  at- 
mosphere in  which  Missions  are  conducted  during  these 
years  of  the  Twentieth  Century  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  nineties,  or  even  of  a  decade  later.  Nations  and 
Governments  are  coming  to  understand  that  the  world  is 
one;  merchants  and  bankers  proclaim  it  most  insistently. 
It  is  rather  a  new  idea  fer  many,  however,  and  some  have 
not  yet  grasped  it,  but  the  Foreign  Missionary  enterprise 
has  been  asserting  it  for  a  hundred  years;  that  is  its 
fundamental  axiom.  Nowadays  publicists,  statesmen  and 
Governments  are  working  on  this  principle  and  the  daily 
paper  with  its  many  items  of  international  news  is  un- 
consciously promoting  the  cause  of  Foreign  Missions.  The 
Board  executive,  therefore,  must  be  alert  to  the  news  from 
abroad  and  must  be  able  to  interpret  it  and  point  out  its 
significance  to  his  audiences. 

No  amount  of  study,  however,  or  the  mere  reading  of 
reports  of  national  and  international  activities  can  ever 
furnish  the  Foreign  Mission  executive  with  the  first  hand 
knowledge  and  information  that  he  must  have  if  he  is 


14         Executives  for  Christiatst  Ewteeprises 

to  be  a  strong  advocate  of  the  cause.  He  must  visit  the 
Mission  field  himself,  must  enter  into  the  life  of  the  mis- 
sionaries for  a  time,  however  brief,  and  he  must  come 
into  contact  with  the  people  among  whom  the  work  is 
being  done.  He  must  inspect  and  study  the  institutions 
that  have  been  established  in  their  midst.  He  can  then 
speak  with  confidence  on  his  subject  and  he  will  be  re- 
ceived as  an  authority. 

Other  purposes  are  served,  however,  by  visitation  of  the 
field  than  those  which  redound  so  directly  to  the  advantage 
of  the  officer  who  makes  the  trip.  The  missionary  forces 
on  the  field  are  able  to  counsel  with  him  regarding  their 
work;  he  sees  the  needs  himself,  can  appraise  at  first 
hand  the  plans  that  may  be  proposed  for  enlargement  and 
extension  and  can  report  on  them  from  personal  knowledge 
to  the  Board  and  to  the  Church.  He  takes  a  fresh  message 
of  brotherly  interest  and  sympathy  from  the  Church  at 
home  to  the  Church  in  the  Mission  field  and  returns  with 
messages  of  greetings  and  appreciation  from  the  Christians 
in  the  younger  Churches  abroad  to  the  supporters  in  the 
homeland.  It  is  now  an  accepted  principle  of  foreign 
administration  that  executives  should  make  periodical  in- 
spections of  the  Mission  fields  and  as  frequently  as  cir- 
cumstances will  permit.  He  is  fortunate,  indeed,  who 
travels  not  with  the  burden  of  a  salesman,  nor  with  the 
selfish  motive  of  an  exploiter,  nor,  indeed,  listlessly,  as 
a  mere  sight-seer,  without  purpose,  but  as  one  commis- 
sioned for  a  serious  and  exalted  errand  as  an  emissary 
of  good  will. 

Men  thus  equipped  by  study,  by  travel  and  by  experi- 
ence in  office  are  naturally  in  demand  as  speakers  and 
can  secure  all  the  appointments  they  are  able  to  accept. 
If  they  are  also  good  wielders  of  the  pen  they  will  have 
access  to  magazines,  both  religious  and  secular,  and  not 
infrequently  to  the  columns  of  the  daily  newspaper. 
Scores  of  books  have  been  published  by  executives  on 
Missions  and  allied  subjects. 


Executives  fok  Christian  Enterprises         15 

Promotional  work  of  this  character  is  common  to  the 
executives  of  practically  all  the  enterprises,  "which  have 
been  named,  any  differences  being  due  to  varying  phases 
of  Christian  work  which  the  organization  undertakes  and 
the  propaganda  that  is  required. 

Executives  in  charge  of  the  treasury  and  of  the  fiscal 
operations  of  the  organization  have  under  their  supervision 
the  bookkeeping  and  accounting  which,  after  the  manner 
of  an  exact  science,  concentrates  millions  of  receipts  and 
disbursements,  reducing  them  to  epitomes  or  reports, 
which  tell  the  tale  of  surplus  or  deficit  for  the  period 
under  review.  Domestic  and  foreign  banking  include  re- 
lationships with  the  largest  banking  institutions  in  the 
world  at  home  and  abroad.  Local  deposits  will  run  at 
times  over  the  million  mark  and  at  others  depleted  balances 
must  be  strengthened  by  loans  which  may  be  equally  large 
and  which  are  very  costly  in  interest  charges.  The  ex- 
ecutive has  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  credit  for  his  or- 
ganization as  bankers  have  come  to  understand  that  no 
loans  are  safer  than  those  undertaken  by  such  Boards  and 
Agencies.  Likewise  in  the  sale  of  foreign  exchange,  their 
drafts  are  readily  accepted  all  over  the  world  and  local 
currency  is  willingly  turned  over  by  merchants  and  money 
changers  to  the  field  treasurers  in  exchange  for  their  paper. 
The  drivers  of  the  caravans  coming  down  out  of  China 
crossing  Burmah  to  Rangoon  are  as  ready  to  deliver  their 
coin  to  the  missionary  treasurer  in  exchange  for  his  drafts 
on  'New  York  as  are  the  international  bankers  of  Yoko- 
hama, Hong  Kong  or  Bombay.  The  dozen  or  more  curren- 
cies in  which  the  business  is  transacted  become  familiar 
media  of  exchange,  whether  Rupees,  Pice  and  Annas,  or 
Tomans  and  Piastres,  Turkish  pounds  or  British  pounds. 
Pesos  or  Milreis,  Ticals  or  Yen,  or  China  ^'Mexicans." 
The  Board  executive  is  as  good  a  guesser  as  the  foreign 
exchange  expert  in  trying  to  gauge  future  rates  and  he 
comes  to  understand  that  the  Gold  standard  cannot  be 
introduced  into  China  until  the  Chinese  are  willing  to  re- 


16         Executives  for  Christiais^  Enterprises 

liiiqiiish  the  exciting  and  profitable  calling  of  gambling 
in  their  currency,  "which  is  based  on  the  price  of  Silver 
as  a  commodity.  When  international  exchange  is  inter- 
rupted as  during  the  World  War,  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment and  American  business  organizations  are  ready  to 
cooperate  with  Boards  in  getting  their  remittances  to  the 
Missions.  In  1915  a  cruiser  took  a  consignment  of  Gold 
to  Beirut  when  that  port  was  inaccessible  by  the  ordinary 
means  of  communication  and  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
paid  over  to  the  Mission  Treasurer  at  Beirut  $100,000.00 
of  its  collections  in  the  l^ear  East,  thus  making  the  cash 
available  for  relief  and  Mission  work.  An  equivalent 
amount  was  paid  by  the  Board  in  l^ew  York  to  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Company;  both  organizations  then  had 
their  funds  where  they  V7anted  them  and  the  only  cost 
was  the  cable  advice. 

Some  $2,000,000.00  of  relief  funds  for  Syrians  alone 
were  received  by  one  of  the  Board  treasuries  in  I^ew  York 
from  remitters  in  the  United  States  to  be  distributed  to 
their  relatives  and  friends  in  the  !N"ear  East  through  Mis- 
sion representatives.  The  sums  were  in  small  amounts 
individually  and  the  delivery  of  the  money  to  the  con- 
signees was  often  attended  by  the  greatest  difficulty  and 
sometimes  by  danger.  The  designations  were  in  some 
cases  indefinite  and  it  was  all  but  impossible  to  locate 
the  proper  party.     The  following  examples  tell  the  story: 


).00  for  Yusef  Haddad,  living  in  or  near 
the  War  zone." 

''$20.00   for  Hanna   Khoury,   Assyria." 

''$40.00  from  Daoud  Teen  of  Ohio  to  his 
mother  in  Syria." 

"$50.00  for  Abdullah  Ghanim,  Beirut.  He 
is  5%  feet  high  and  must  wear  glasses  on  his 
eyes  to  see  you." 

"$50.00  for  Marian  Tannous,  which  amount 
is  to  be  delivered  with  a  thousand  kisses." 


Executives  for  Cheistian  Enterprises         17 

Executives  of  these  Christian  enterprises  must  handle 
property  of  every  kind  and  description.  The  investment 
in  land,  buildings  and  equipment  may  total  $10,000,000.00 
for  one  Board  alone  and  the  home  office  must  assume 
ultimate  responsibility  for  its  care  and  proper  main- 
tenance. Complete  records  of  these  properties  must  be 
kept  on  file  and  up  to  date,  and  as  the  plants  are  located 
all  over  the  world  the  business  in  real  estate  has  a  wide 
range.  Besides  these  holdings  there  is  the  handling  of 
every  kind  and  description  of  property  left  to  the  Boards 
under  Wills  and  turned  over  to  them  on  the  settlement 
of  estates.  There  are  town  lots  and  improved  city  real 
estate,  including  business  blocks;  there  is  suburban  and 
country  real  estate,  improved  and  unimproved;  agricultu- 
ral lands,  including  farms  with  livestock  and  complete 
equipment ;  coal  mines,  oil  and  timber  land ;  securities 
of  all  kinds,  bonds,  mortgages,  stock  of  corporations,  per- 
sonal belongings,  including  family  heirlooms  and  trinkets, 
everything,  in  fact,  that  may  be  included  in  a  residuary 
estate.  All  such  property  must  be  sold  as  quickly  as  this 
can  be  done  to  advantage  and  the  proceeds  devoted  to  the 
work,  but  until  then  it  must  be  safeguarded  and  con- 
served. In  connection  with  these  bequests  and  devises 
there  is  legal  and  probate  work  and,  unfortunately,  some- 
times litigation.  A  Board  may  be  a  participant  in  half  a 
dozen  lawsuits  at  the  same  time  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  since  as  a  trustee  it  is  bound  to  defend  its  rights 
under  Wills  if  they  are  challenged.  Any  legal  training 
which  the  Board  officer  may  have  had  will  stand  him 
in  good  stead,  though,  of  course,  he  will  have  the  aid  of 
competent  attorneys  often  rendered  without  any  charge 
whatever. 

Transactions  in  investment  securities,  chiefly  on  the 
buying  side,  to  secure  endowment  funds  run  into  several 
million  dollars  for  a  single  Board.  This  business  and 
the  handling  of  securities  for  the  personnel  of  the  organi- 
zation, chiefly  the  missionaries  and  other  workers  in  the 


18         Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises 

field,  attains  large  proportions.  The  larger  offices  have 
travel  departments  by  which  much  business  in  transporta- 
tion is  transacted,  the  purchase  of  railroad  and  steamship 
tickets  aggregating  $75,000.00  or  $100,000.00  a  year. 
One  traveler  appeared  at  such  an  office  with  the  statement 
that  he  had  been  sent  by  Thomas  Cook  &  Son  ^'as  the 
Board  knows  more  about  getting  out  to  Persia  than  we 
do,"  said  they.  A  Purchasing  and  Shipping  Department 
must  also  be  maintained  to  purchase  and  ship  everything 
from  a  needle  to  blooded  cattle, — the  latter  for  the  big 
Agricultural  Colleges. 

The  opportunity  is  always  open  to  the  executive  officer 
to  take  the  initiative  in  planning  better  things  for  his 
organization,  effecting  combinations  and  consolidations, 
introducing  better  methods  and  more  efficient  practice. 
Twenty-eight  local  treasuries  of  one  Board  in  as  many 
different  towns  or  villages  in  China  were  consolidated  at 
Shanghai  and  the  consolidated  office  was  then  united  with 
the  treasuries  of  eight  other  Boards  into  an  Associated 
Mission  Treasurers'  Office,  which  now  sells  $6,000,000.00 
of  exchange  a  year.  Such  an  institution  commands  not 
only  the  profound  respect  of  the  business  community,  but 
the  best  rates  on  foreign  exchange  as  well.  Board  execu- 
tives have  been  instrumental  in  establishing  united  archi- 
tectural and  buildings  bureaus  in  the  Far  East,  by  means 
of  which  a  large  number  of  Boards  and  Agencies  are  able 
to  get  better  architecture  for  Mission  buildings  and  better 
and  more  economical  construction. 

Among  the  points  of  a  good  job  Dr.  Eichard  C.  Cabot 
names  seven,  balanced  variety  and  monotony,  initiative 
and  supervision,  the  chance  to  subjugate  nature  or  per- 
sonally to  create  something,  pleasant  companionship,  a 
title  and  an  institutional  connection.  ''These,"  he  says, 
"go  far  to  give  us  happiness  in  work."  ^  Every  one  of 
these  ''standards"  the  executive  of  a  Christian  enterprise 

i"What  Men  Live  By,"  Boston,  1914,  pp.  27-28. 


Executives  for  Christian  Enterprises         19 

possesses,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  happier  set 
of  workers.  A  prominent  lawyer  in  l^ew  York  asked 
an  executive  how  it  came  about  that  he  knew  all  the 
big  men  and  the  best  men  in  the  city.  His  reply  was  from 
the  heart :  ''Because  I  am  in  the  best  work  in  the  world." 


PAKT  III 
OPPOETUNITIES   FOR   SOCIAL  WOEK 

By 
William  Bacon  Bailey 


The  purpose  of  the  following  pages  is  to  acquaint  the 
college  man  very  briefly  with  some  of  the  opportunities 
for  employment  in  social  work.  The  list  is  by  no  means 
complete.  Many  entire  lines  of  activity,  such  as  Public 
Health  ^N'ursing,  the  work  of  Civic  Protective  Associa- 
tions, Orphan  Asylums,  and  Women's  Keformatories,  have 
been  omitted  because  the  workers  in  these  lines  are  almost 
entirely  women.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  divide 
the  field  of  work  according  to  the  service  rendered,  but  it 
is  realized  that  this  division  is  quite  arbitrary,  and  that 
these  lines  cannot  be  sharply  drawn.  If  these  pages  offer 
a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  field  in  sufficient  detail  to  enable 
a  student  to  select  a  line  of  work  with  a  fairly  satisfac- 
tory idea  as  to  its  extent  and  possibilities,  the  purpose  of 
the  writer  has  been  accomplished. 


MODERN  CHRISTIAN 
CALLINGS 

OPPOETUOTTIES  FOE  SOCIAL  WORK 

THERE  are  many  young  men  in  the  schools  of  higher 
education  in  this  country  who  desire  for  a  life  work 
some  form  of  altruistic  endeavor,  who  desire  whole- 
heartedly to  consecrate  their  lives  to  the  service  of  hu- 
manity, and  yet  from  justifiable  motives  shrink  from 
service  in  foreign  mission  fields  or  the  Christian  minis- 
try. They  wish  to  know  the  opportunities  included  within 
the  "wide  field  of  social  service.  They  are  anxious  to 
choose  the  line  of  work  to  which  they  are  best  fitted,  and  in 
which  their  special  aptitudes  will  find  the  largest  field  for 
usefulness.  But  few  of  these  young  men  possess  an  inde- 
pendent income  and  they  must  select  a  line  of  work  in 
which  the  financial  return '  is  commensurate  with  their 
training,  ability  and  industry,  and  in  which  there  is  op- 
portunity for  the  security  of  employment  and  advance- 
ment assured  by  conscientious  effort  in  other  lines  of  en- 
deavor. They  do  not  expect  to  gain  great  wealth,  or  the 
large  financial  return  of  those  who  are  conspicuously  suc- 
cessful in  trade  or  manufacture.  In  fact,  a  large  share 
of  their  reward  will  come  from  the  satisfaction  that  they 
have  made  brighter  the  life  of  some  unfortunate,  or  done 
their  share  to  mitigate  some  social  injustice.  But  they 
are  anxious  to  avoid  the  blind  alley  which  leads  nowhere, 
and  in  which  the  nature  of  the  employment  precludes  ad- 
vancement. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  religious  motives  undoubtedly 

o 


4  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

led  some  to  withdraw  from  the  world  and  its  pleasures, 
and  through  an  ascetic  life  of  fasting  and  prayer  hope  to 
attain  conspicuous  virtue.  But  there  has  probably  never 
been  a  time  in  which  the  desire  to  improve  the  lot  of  the 
more  unfortunate  members  of  society  has  not  been  a  mov- 
ing force  in  the  lives  of  many.  The  motive  may  have  been 
sympathy,  or  a  sense  of  justice.  It  was  felt  by  most  that 
if  the  misery  of  the  world  was  to  be  relieved,  this  could 
be  accomplished  not  by  a  life  of  seclusion,  but  by  active 
service.  Because  during  the  Middle  Ages  most  of  the 
charitable  enterprises  were  in  the  hands  of  the  church, 
most  of  the  philanthropic  work  was  done  by  members  of 
religious  orders.  This  was  a  natural  development  since 
the  church  stressed  the  duty  of  caring  for  the  poor  and 
needy,  and  since  the  impulse  to  do  good  works  was 
strengthened  by  the  inspiration  of  religious  teaching. 
Aside  from  the  instruction  given  to  the  Sisters  who  de- 
voted themselves  to  nursing  the  sick,  there  was  little  sys- 
tematic training  in  preparation  for  social  and  philan- 
thropic work.  At  the  close  of  this  period  a  few  names,  like 
Tuke,  Howard  and  Florence  Nightingale,  stand  forth. 
They  were  pioneers  in  correcting  some  of  the  abuses  of 
the  time  and  introduced  scientific  principles  and  humane 
treatment  of  the  sick  and  unfortunate,  particularly  of 
those  in  institutions.  It  has  been  only  within  the  last 
hundred  years  that  the  field  of  social  work  has  been 
mapped  out  and  the  principles  of  scientific  treatment 
slowly  developed.  As  a  result  of  study  and  the  exchange 
of  ideas  through  conferences,  methods  of  work  have  grad- 
ually become  standardized.  Methods  of  procedure  which 
twenty-five  or  fifty  years  ago  were  the  subjects  of  dif- 
ference of  opinion  and  active  discussion  have  gradually 
become  accepted  and  standardized.  As  in  the  develop- 
ment of  any  field  of  scientific  work,  the  progress  has  been 
accomplished  by  a  large  number  of  students  and  investi- 
gators in  different  fields  until  there  has  been  collected  a 
large  amount  of  reliable  data.    This  has  been  collated  and 


Opportunities  for  Social  Work  5 

systematized  until  the  general  principles  underlying  so- 
cial work  are  recognized  and  available  for  the  student. 
The  field  of  study  was  extremely  difficult  and  complex  be- 
cause it  was  impossible  for  the  investigator  to  separate  in- 
dividuals from  their  environment.  The  physicist  and 
chemist  can  study  his  elements  in  a  laboratory  under  what- 
ever conditions  he  sees  fit  to  place  them.  The  social 
worker,  however,  meets  his  problems  among  humanity  in 
an  ever  changing  world.  We  can  never  be  certain  of  the 
reactions  where  the  elements  are  human  beings  with  the 
world  for  a  crucible. 

Although  we  can  never  look  for  the  positivity  of  the 
physical  sciences,  we  have  a  sufficient  body  of  knowledge 
for  the  formulation  of  rules  of  practice  in  most  fields  of 
social  work.  Although  we  may  not  expect  entire  agree- 
ment among  social  workers  as  to  the  treatment  of  any  par- 
ticular problem,  yet  it  is  possible  to  formulate  general 
rules  governing  the  collection  of  the  evidence  bearing  upon 
the  question  in  hand,  to  assist  in  diagnosis  and  treatment. 

As  in  the  early  days  in  this  country  one  who  would  be- 
come a  lawyer  entered  the  office  of  an  attorney  and  ac- 
quired a  legal  education  and  training  in  this  way,  so  one 
who  would  engage  in  any  form  of  social  work  found  it 
necessary  to  become  connected  with  some  organization  or 
institution,  and  learn  from  actual  experience  in  the  work 
and  from  the  advice  of  those  more  experienced  than  him- 
self. In  time,  however,  law  schools  were  established  and 
those  who  intended  to  enter  this  profession  found  it  more 
to  their  advantage  to  devote  two  or  more  years  to  regular 
class-room  work  in  order  to  become  fitted  for  this  pro- 
fession. In  the  same  way  schools  of  social  service  have 
been  opened,  in  which  students  may  spend  one  or  two 
years  in  learning  the  principles  and  practice  of  social 
work.  During  the  first  year  the  work  is  almost  entirely 
theoretical,  while  during  the  second  year  the  student  is 
given  practical  experience  and  training  along  that  particu- 
lar line  which  he  intends  to  follow  as  a  life  work.     As 


6  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

schools  of  law  and  medicine  are  in  increasing  numbers  re- 
quiring as  a  prerequisite  for  enrollment  a  college  degree, 
so  schools  of  social  service  are  emphasizing  the  advantage 
of  a  college  degree  to  those  who  hope  to  attain  positions 
of  responsibility  and  prominence  in  their  chosen  line. 

College  students  who  are  contemplating  some  form  of 
social  service  as  a  life  work  would  do  well  to  give  it  a 
trial  before  entering  a  school  of  social  service  for  spe- 
cialized training.  If  the  college  which  they  are  attending 
is  located  in  or  near  a  city  of  considerable  size,  it  is  easy 
to  find  an  opportunity  to  do  volunteer  work  for  some  of 
the  philanthropic  organizations.  Most  of  the  executives 
of  these  organizations  can  find  tasks  fitted  to  college  stu- 
dents and  are  glad  of  their  assistance  as  volunteers.  If 
the  location  of  the  college  renders  this  impossible,  it  is 
usually  feasible  to  find  some  form  of  work  of  this  nature 
during  the  summer  vacation.  In  this  way  it  is  usually 
possible  to  tell  whether  the  appeal  of  this  form  of  work  is 
sufficient  to  Avarrant  undertaking  it  as  a  life  work.  At 
the  same  time  the  student  can  obtain  from  the  one  in 
charge  of  his  work  a  frank  opinion  as  to  whether  he  seems 
to  be,  by  nature  and  temperament,  fitted  for  it.  A  frank 
and  conscientious  executive  is  often  under  the  necessity 
of  telling  a  volunteer  worker  that  he  is  not  likely  to  make 
a  success  of  this  line  of  work,  and  to  advise  him  to  enter 
some  other  field. 

To  the  student  who  is  contemplating  social  work  as  a 
profession,  the  truth  should  be  told  at  the  start  that  it  is 
not  an  easy  life,  l^o  greater  responsibility  can  be  thrown 
upon  a  man  than  the  care  of  a  family  that  has  made  a 
failure  of  life  and  must  be  rehabilitated.  It  may  have 
been  simply  sickness  or  unavoidable  misfortune  that  has 
reduced  the  family  to  its  present  unfortunate  situation,  or 
it  may  have  been  the  result  of  unwise  decisions  and  bad 
habits  that  have  covered  years  and  reduced  the  family 
from  an  earlier  position  of  self-respect  and  self-support  to 
its  present  pitiable  state.     It  is  no  easy  matter  to  change 


Oppoktunities  por  Sociai.  Work  7 

the  habits  of  years,  eveu  though  the  family  must  realize 
that  it  is  to  them  that  the  present  misfortunes  are  due. 

:tray  the  family  in 
lires  patience,  tact 
ent  qualities  which 
again  to  its  former 
'  which  these  quali- 
juires  a  high  order 
uccessful  investiga- 
Ty  of  the  mistakes 

Td  OQ  in  ^*  downfall.     It  in- 

i  '  rhj  ^,^  10  ^^^^  latent  by  which 

ation.  To  discover 
stment  in  a  stalled 
inspiring  the  neces- 
isheartened  family. 
:  social  work  is  ex- 
.  an  may  be  formed 

/  family,  and  for  a 

sem  to  be  quite  suc- 
1  misfortune,  or  the 
precipitate  another 
st  be  taken  in  hand 
There  will  be  times 
operate  splendidly, 
igh  the  day  brought 
ly  at  the  task  under 
(tain  that  optimism 
possible,  requires  a 
of  such  discourage- 
9  Source  of  infinite 
Z   f   AiiOD    ppv        successful. 

ind  his  reward  and 

one  his  best,  rather 

than  from  the  thanks  and  gratitude  of  those  for  whom  he 

has  worked.     A  nurse  who  renews  a  dressing  or  gives  a 

bath  to  a  patient  performs  a  service  which  is  appreciated, 


6 


Opportunities  for  Social  Work 


schools  of  law  and  medicine  are  in  increasing  numbers  re- 
quiring as  a  prerequisite  for  enrollment  a  collea'e  dee:ree, 
so  schools  of  social  i 
of  a  college  degree 
of  responsibility  anc 

College  students 
social  service  as  a  1 
trial  before  entering 
cialized  training.  I 
is  located  in  or  near 
to  find  an  opportun; 
the  philanthropic  oi 
of  these  organizatioi 
dents  and  are  glad  ■ 
the  location  of  the 
usually  feasible  to  fi 
during  the  summer 
possible  to  tell  whetl: 
sufficient  to  warrant 
the  same  time  the  \ 
charge  of  his  work  a 
to  be,  by  nature  and 
and  conscientious  ex 
of  telling  a  volunteer 
a  success  of  this  line 
some  other  field. 

To  the  student  wl 
profession,  the  truth 
not  an  easy  life.  No 
upon  a  man  than  th 
failure  of  life  and  i 
been  simply  sickness 


reduced  the  family  tc  a  ' 

it  may  have  been  the ' 

habits  that  have  covered  years  and  reduced  the  family 
from  an  earlier  position  of  self-respect  and  self-support  to 
its  present  pitiable  state.     It  is  no  easy  matter  to  change 


Opportunities  for  Social  Work  7 

the  habits  of  years,  even  though  the  family  must  realize 
that  it  is  to  them  that  the  j^resent  misfortunes  are  due. 
To  make  an  investigation  that  will  portray  the  family  in 
its  period  of  greatest  prosperity  requires  patience,  tact 
and  sympathy.  To  hit  upon  those  latent  qualities  which 
are  most  likely  to  bring  the  family  back  again  to  its  former 
high  estate,  and  to  formulate  a  plan  by  which  these  quali- 
ties can  function  most  successfully  requires  a  high  order 
of  intelligence  and  imagination.  A  successful  investiga- 
tion means  far  more  than  the  discovery  of  the  mistakes 
and  bad  habits  which  caused  the  present  downfall.  It  in- 
volves the  discovery  of  other  qualities  now  latent  by  which 
the  family  may  work  out  its  own  salvation.  To  discover 
the  broken  wiring,  or  the  faulty  adjustment  in  a  stalled 
automobile,  is  an  easy  task  to  that  of  inspiring  the  neces- 
sary ambition  in  a  discouraged  and  disheartened  family. 
There  is  no  use  denying  the  fact  that  social  work  is  ex- 
tremely discouraging  at  times.  A  plan  may  be  formed 
which  seems  to  promise  well  for  the  family,  and  for  a 
while  the  efforts  of  the  family  would  seem  to  be  quite  suc- 
cessful when  suddenly  some  unforeseen  misfortune,  or  the 
reappearance  of  some  bad  habit  will  precipitate  another 
catastrophe,  and  then  the  problem  must  be  taken  in  hand 
again  with  perhaps  a  change  in  plan;  There  will  be  times 
when  most  of  these  families  will  cooperate  splendidly, 
and  again  when  it  would  seem  as  though  the  day  brought 
little  except  bad  news.  To  keep  steadily  at  the  task  under 
these  trying  circumstances,  and  to  retain  that  optimism 
without  which  suc^'essful  work  is  impossible,  requires  a 
high  order  of  courage.  In  the  face  of  such  discourage- 
ments that  man  who  has  access  to  the  Source  of  infinite 
strength  and  courage  will  prove  most  successful. 

The  social  worker  must  expect  to  find  his  reward  and 
satisfaction  in  the  fact  that  he  has  done  his  best,  rather 
than  from  the  thanks  and  gratitude  of  those  for  whom  he 
has  worked.  A  nurse  who  renews  a  dressing  or  gives  a 
bath  to  a  patient  performs  a  service  which  is  appreciated, 


8  Opportui^ities  for  Social  Work 

and  which  is  just  the  kind  of  service  the  patient  desires. 
A  social  worker,  on  the  other  hand,  often  finds  it  neces- 
sary to  do  something  other  than  that  desired  by  the  family 
visited.  The  client  may  expect  money  and  get  advice,  or  it 
may  be  that  the  plan  which  is  being  followed  for  this 
family  requires  the  breaking  of  habits  which  have  been 
followed  for  years.  It  is  unpleasant  to  give  up  old  habits 
and  form  new  ones.  If  the  plan  works  out  successfully 
the  family  feels  that  it  was  their  own  actions  which  made 
it  a  success.  If  it  fails  the  blame  is  laid  on  the  worker. 
This  is  to  be  expected  and  the  social  worker,  therefore, 
should  look  for  his  gratification,  not  to  the  appreciation 
of  those  for  whom  he  works,  but  to  the  realization  that  he 
has  done  what  he  could,  and  that  a  fair  measure  of  suc- 
cess has  attended  his  efforts. 


I.    Qualities  and  Training  Kequired  for  Successful 
Social  Work 

The  qualities  required  to  make  a  successful  teacher  are 
needed  in  many  forms  of  social  work  because  the  solution 
of  many  social  questions  in  the  home  and  family  is  at 
basis  educational.  As  the  successful  teacher  studies  the 
individual  peculiarities  and  needs  of  every  scholar,  and 
then  with  patience  tries  to  stimulate  activity  and  ambi- 
tion in  the  entire  class,  so  the  social  worker  must  approach 
each  family  as  a  distinct  problem  and  patiently  work  to 
secure  cooperation  and  develop  ambition.  The  ability  to 
take  pains  and  to  be  patient  is  requisite  for  any  large 
measure  of  success  in  this  field. 

Few  college  graduates  will  be  satisfied  to  remain  in- 
definitely in  a  subordinate  position  in  any  field  of  social 
work.  As  a  college  graduate  begins  at  the  bottom  in  shop 
or  factory  in  order  to  have  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  these 
various  processes,  and  trusts  to  his  theoretical  training 
and  ability  to  think  straight  for  advancement,  so  the  so- 
cial worker  must  acquaint  himself  with  the  various  details 


Training  Required  foe  Successful  Social  Work        9 

and  branches  of  work  connected  with  organizations  be- 
fore he  can  expect  to  occupy  an  administrative  position. 
In  addition  to  familiarity  with  the  work,  an  administrator 
mnst  gain  two  points;  first,  the  loyahy  of  his  workers, 
and  secondly,  the  confidence  of  the  community.  As  one 
of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  social  w^ork  is  to  secure 
from  the  public  the  necessary  funds,  so  the  public  must 
become  convinced  that  the  organization  in  question  fills  a 
distinct  need  in  the  community,  that  it  is  being  intelli- 
gently managed,  and  that  the  community  receives  from 
each  dollar  contributed  a  dollar  in  service.  For  this  end 
the  loyalty  of  the  workers  is  indispensable. 

It  is  often  necessary  for  the  executive  head  of  an  or- 
ganization to  appear  in  public  in  order  to  gain  the  sup- 
port of  a  group  of  citizens  for  his  work.  Therefore,  he 
should  be  able  to  gather,  tabulate  and  analyze  statistical 
data,  marshal  his  facts  in  an  orderly  manner,  and  present 
them  briefly  and  forcibly.  Since  many  organizations  and 
institutions  receive  all  or  part  of  their  funds  from  taxa- 
tion, he  should  be  able  to  appear  at  a  legislative  hearing 
to  state  the  needs  of  his  work  and  show  the  necessity  of 
the  appropriation  for  which  he  is  asking.  At  the  same 
time  he  should  be  able  to  show  that  the  appropriation  un- 
der which  he  is  at  present  working  has  been  expended 
wisely.  There  are  some  able  administrators  who  do  not 
appear  to  advantage  in  presenting  the  needs  of  their  work, 
but  they  are  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  and  almost 
invariably   deplore  their   ineffectiveness   along  this   line. 

A  successful  worker  in  any  field  will  keep  an  interest 
in  the  literature  of  his  subject.  He  will  frequently  at- 
tend conferences  of  those  working  along  the  same  line, 
and  will  be  prepared  occasionally  to  present  a  paper  deal- 
ing with  the  problems  which  he  has  encountered,  and  try 
to  add  some  contribution  toward  the  solution  of  those 
questions  uppermost  in  his  mind. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  suggest  in  detail  the  content 
of  the  college  courses  to  be  chosen  by  one  who  has  in  mind 


10  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

to  select  social  work  as  a  career,  there  are,  however,  cer- 
tain broad  fields  of  study  from  which  selections  may  be 
made  with  profit.  He  should  early  select  courses  in 
medieval  and  modern  history,  supplementing  them  with 
work  in  industrial  and  economic  history.  Elementary 
courses  in  both  economics  and  sociology  should  be  elected. 
They  should  be  followed  by  more  advanced  courses  upon 
the  border  line  between  economics  and  sociology,  such  as 
those  relating  to  applied  sociology,  labor  problems,  immi- 
gration, socialism,  etc.  Some  time  during  his  junior  or 
senior  year  he  should  take  a  thorough  course  in  statistics. 
The  ability  to  read  and  speak  at  least  one  modern  lan- 
guage should  be  acquired  before  graduation.  A  good 
course  in  psychology  is  quite  important  and  a  course  in 
the  history  of  religion  is  essential  for  one  who  would  work 
among  the  foreign-born.  All  of  these  courses  are  tools  for 
his  future  work.  Further  cultural  courses  which  will  ac- 
quaint the  student  with  the  best  in  literature  and  give  him 
the  ability  to  read  with  discrimination,  to  write  clearly 
and  to  think  straight  should  be  selected.  With  this  as  a 
background  the  student  is  in  a  position  to  follow  with 
profit  one  or  more  years  of  professional  training  for  his 
chosen  work. 


II.    Community  Problems 

The  objects  of  social  work  are  two-fold :  First,  to  make 
possible  an  ampler  life  for  the  individual;  second,  to  im- 
prove the  environment  of  the  community  in  which  he 
lives.  In  the  earlier  developments  of  social  work  more  at- 
tention was  given  to  the  individual,  but  within  recent 
years  it  has  become  increasingly  apparent  that  many  of 
the  evils  from  which  the  individual  suffers  may  be  traced 
to  unfortunate  conditions  in  the  community.  As  a  re- 
sult, even  those  workers  whose  ordinary  activities  are  con- 
fined to  the  individual  or  the  family  are  forced  to  take 
an  increasing  interest  in  community  problems. 


Community  Problems  11 


(a)   health 

Boards  of  Health  and  Health  Centers.  Of  the  com- 
munity problems  demanding  the  attention  of  experts^ 
none  is  more  pressing  than  that  of  public  health.  This 
service  requires  men  who  are  not  only  trained  in  general 
courses  in  physics,  biology  and  chemistry,  but  who  have 
taken  more  advanced  courses  in  bacteriology,  sanitation 
and  public  hygiene.  To  meet  this  need  universities  are, 
in  some  cases,  inaugurating  departments  of  public  health 
for  the  training  of  experts  along  these  lines.  There  is  a 
demand  for  men  who  will  take  charge  of  a  department  of 
public  health  for  a  city  and  organize  the  preventive  work 
in  that  community  to  the  end  of  reducing  the  morbidity 
and  mortality.  The  inspection  of  milk  and  food  supplies, 
the  condition  of  restaurants,  hotels,  and  barber  shops, 
should  be  included  under  this  department.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  water  supply,  the  pollution  of  streams,  the  con- 
trol of  mosquitoes,  is  part  of  the  activity  of  such  a  depart- 
ment. The  graduate  of  a  medical  school  enjoys  a  distinct 
advantage  in  entering  work  of  this  character.  The  ad- 
ministrative officers  of  State  Boards  of  Health  have  con- 
siderable powers  and  through  investigations  and  publi- 
cations can  do  much  to  improve  the  sanitation  and  health 
of  our  communities.  Although  these  offices  are,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  political,  there  is  an  increasing  tendency 
to  appoint  well-trained  and  competent  men  to  these  posi- 
tions. Many  of  the  minor  positions,  such  as  inspector  and 
bacteriologist,  are  filled  as  a  result  of  competitive  exami- 
nation and  the  appointees  are  protected  by  civil  service 
rules.  The  ability  to  make  a  thorough  investigation  and 
carefully  to  record  the  facts  are  required  in  a  sulx)rdinate 
position  of  this  kind.  To  those  who  possess  this  ability 
and  are  willing  to  work  hard  the  road  to  considerable  ad- 
vancement is  not  closed.  Health  Centers  have  been  estab- 
lished in  many  cities  where  the  attempt  is  being  made  to 


12  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

demonstrate  the  possibility  of  reducing  quite  materially 
the  amount  of  sickness  in  a  community.  Several  national 
organizations  are  employing  experts  in  the  field  to  study 
the  causes  and  extent  of  certain  diseases  with  the  end  of 
reducing  or  eliminating  them.  There  are  few  fields  in 
which  the  demand  for  trained  men  has  increased  more 
rapidly  in  recent  years  than  in  that  of  public  health. 

Tuberculosis.  There  is  no  single  disease  to  which  the 
attention  of  the  community  has  been  directed  with  greater 
emphasis  within  recent  years  than  that  of  tuberculosis. 
The  extent  of  this  disease  and  the  fact  that  it  attacks  in- 
dividuals at  the  period  of  maximum  earning  capacity,  and 
that  it  usually  results  in  a  long  and  lingering  illness,  has 
directed  attention  to  it.  The  publicity  which  has  attended 
the  Christmas  sale  of  Red  Cross  seals  has  probably  given 
this  disease  more  public  attention  than  any  other.  In 
almost  every  state  there  is  a  Tuberculosis  Association  oc- 
cupied in  instructing  the  public  with  regard  to  this  dis- 
ease. Inasmuch  as  tuberculosis  is  due,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  to  improper  living  and  working  conditions,  a  cam- 
paign of  instruction  carried  into  the  home,  school  and 
work-shop  can  do  much  for  prevention.  These  associa- 
tions require  the  services  of  administrative  officers  who 
can  conduct  such  a  campaign  of  education  and  publicity. 
For  those  who  have  completed  a  course  in  a  medical  school 
there  are  the  opportunities  to  become  superintendents  of 
the  sanatoria  which  are  constantly  increasing  in  size  and 
numbers  in  this  country. 

Hospitals  and  Dispensaries.  Most  of  the  large  hospi- 
tals in  cities  of  considerable  size  in  this  country  have  a 
man  for  superintendent.  In  most  cases  this  position  is 
held  by  one  who  is  a  graduate  of  a  school  of  medicine. 
These  are  positions  of  great  responsibility  and  men  who 
possess  the  medical  training,  the  administrative  ability, 
and  the  tact  required  are  hard  to  find,  and  a  competent 
superintendent    may    expect    to    receive    a    considerable 


Community  Problems  13 

Within  the  past  few  years  social  service  departments 
have  been  started  in  many  large  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries, but  most  of  the  workers  are  women  who  have 
received  definite  training  in  this  work  in  addition  to  the 
more  general  course  in  a  school  of  social  service.  Their 
duties  are,  in  many  ways,  similar  to  those  of  a  visitor  and 
case  worker  of  a  Charity  Organization  Society. 

Housing,  It  has  long  been  recognized  that  one  of  the 
causes  of  sickness  and  lowered  vitality  is  improper  hous- 
ing. Tenements  with  dark  and  unventilated  rooms  are 
likely  to  be  breeding  places  for  tuberculosis.  Eooms  in 
cellars  and  basements  are  not  desirable  living  quarters. 
Without  proper  provision  for  running  water  and  toilets, 
tenement  house  life  is  unsatisfactory.  With  flimsy  con- 
struction and  wooden  stairs  these  tenements  are  likely  to 
become  death-traps  if  a  fire  starts  and  gains  headway  in 
them.  As  a  result  of  this  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
pass  regulations  governing  the  erection  and  maintenance 
of  tenement  houses  that  they  may  be  proper  habitations. 
This  requires  constant  inspection  of  buildings  in  course 
of  erection  to  see  that  they  comply  with  the  law,  and  the 
inspection  of  occupied  tenements  to  see  that  they  are  so 
maintained  as  to  be  fit  for  habitation,  and  that  all  nui- 
sances are  abated.  Those, in  charge  of  these  departments 
have  an  opportunity  for  very  real  service,  and  those  who 
begin  at  a  fairly  small  salary  as  inspectors  may  hope  in 
time  to  rise  to  positions  of  greater  responsibility. 

Societies  for  Mental  Hygiene.  Very  few  states  at 
present  are  without  an  organization  whose  principal  duty 
is  to  assist  those  who  are  mentally  deranged.  There  are 
many  persons  in  our  communities  who  would  at  one  time 
have  been  considered  simply  queer.  They  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  fit  into  any  normal  environment  and  are  a  source 
of  constant  care  and  anxiety  to  their  family  and  friends. 
Just  what  to  do  with  them  is  a  problem  which  the  average 
individual  is  unable  to  determine.  It  is  the  function  of 
these  societies  for  mental  hygiene  to  make  careful  exami- 


14  Oppoktui^ities  for  Sociai.  Work 

nations  of  these  abnormal  individuals  and  to  give  expert 
advice  to  their  families.  Mental  ailments  of  this  kind  are 
those  with  which  the  average  individual  is  perhaps  the 
least  competent  to  deal  and  must  depend  upon  expert  ad- 
vice. The  expert  employed  by  such  a  society  can  advise 
a  family  whether  the  case  is  one  requiring  institutional 
treatment,  what  is  the  best  institution  for  the  particular 
individual,  and  then  assist  in  the  steps  required  for  legal 
commitment.  To  fit  a  worker  for  a  position  of  this  kind 
requires,  of  course,  peculiar  medical  and  institutional 
training,  but  the  opportunities  for  real  social  and  com- 
munity service  are  very  large. 

Societies  for  Social  Hygiene.  A  question  in  which 
morals  and  health  are  closely  associated  is  that  of  social 
hygiene.  The  war  presented  to  the  people  of  this  country 
the  astounding  prevalence  of  the  social  diseases  and 
aroused  in  them  the  determination  to  do  something  to  re- 
duce this  evil.  State  societies  were  organized  and  with 
the  cooperation  of  Boards  of  Health  a  campaign  of  edu- 
cation by  means  of  motion  pictures  and  lectures  was  be- 
gun. With  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment women's  reformatories  in  many  states  enlarged 
their  hospital  facilities  to  care  for  diseased  women. 
Clinics  for  the  treatment  of  these  diseases  in  both  sexes 
have  been  opened  in  many  of  our  large  cities.  Shop  talks 
are  being  given  to  bring  home  to  the  workers  the  preva- 
lence and  insidiousness  of  these  diseases. 

In  focusing  the  attention  of  the  communities  upon  this 
evil,  and  in  organizing  and  directing  the  efforts  being 
made  throughout  the  country  to  meet  this  situation,  men 
who  are  forceful  speakers  and  possess  executive  ability 
may  find  employment. 

(b)   recreation 

Community  Service.  The  late  war  showed  the  neces- 
sity for  wholesome  recreation  in  the  large  army  camps  and 


Community  Problems  15 

the  cities  near  them.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
leisure  time  of  our  people  is  given  over  to  recreation  and 
many  of  the  forms  have  become  commercialized.  The 
provision  of  recreation  in  this  leisure  time  has  become  a 
matter  of  business,  the  principal  motive  of  v^hich  is  to 
make  money.  The  people  have  demanded  amusement,  but 
have  apparently  forgotten  how  to  amuse  themselves.  Their 
working  hours  are  somewhat  monotonous  and  they  de- 
mand excitement  in  their  hours  of  leisure.  This  has 
opened  the  way  to  many  abuses.  There  are  thousands  of 
men  and  women  in  our  large  cities  who  are  practically 
homeless.  They  live  in  boarding  houses  and  after  the  day's 
work  is  over  go  out  on  the  street  in  search  of  recreation 
and  excitement.  They  spend  much  of  their  time  in  sa- 
loons, billiard  rooms,  in  dance  halls,  and  in  motion  pic- 
ture theaters.  The  demand  for  relaxation  and  a  change 
is  quite  justifiable  and  in  many  cases  little  fault  can  be 
found  with  the  places  they  patronize,  but  where  the  prin- 
cipal motive  back  of  these  commercial  enterprises  is  finan- 
cial gain,  it  is  but  natural  that  abuses  should  creep  in. 
Recognizing  the  necessity  for  legitimate  recreation,  our 
communities  have  set  about  the  task  of  eliminating  the 
most  apparent  evils  connected  with  the  misuse  of  leisure. 
The  saloon  as  an  institution  has  been  abolished.  Public 
dance  halls  are,  in  many  places,  being  supervised.  Mo- 
tion pictures  are  being  censored.  The  responsibility  for 
providing  clean  and  decent  forms  of  recreation  is  being  rec- 
ognized. With  the  abolition  of  the  saloon  as  a  meeting 
place  for  men  has  come  the  obligation  of  providing  some 
substitute  for  this,  and  in  many  places  community  houses 
are  being  opened.  These  provide  opportunities  for  read- 
ing, writing,  rooms  for  different  games  of  skill,  an  audi- 
torium for  concerts,  community  singing,  folk-songs,  folk- 
dances  and  amateur  theatricals,  with  a  floor  to  be  used  for 
dancing.  To  manage  community  houses  of  this  nature  has 
offered  a  new  and  large  opportunity  to  trained  men.  The 
demand  has  exceeded  the  supply  and  it  is  not  an  easy  matter 


16  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

to  find  a  man  who  combines  the  qualities  required  for  the 
successful  administration  of  such  an  enterprise.  As  our 
communities  recognize  their  responsibilities  along  these 
lines,  the  demand  for  trained  leadership  is  sure  to  in- 
crease. Some  idea  of  the  many  lines  into  which  this  serv- 
ice may  lead  may  be  gained  from  the  following  extracts 
from  a  bulletin  sent  by  the  Secretary  of  Community 
Service  (Incorporated)  to  their  workers  outlining  the 
field  of  work : 

"The  contribution  of  Community  Service  to  the  leisure 
time  needs  of  the  members  of  a  community,  with  the  develop- 
ment through  the  community  itself  of  a  community  recrea- 
tion program,  is  along  the  lines  of  social,  recreational,  educa- 
tional and  cultural  interests.  In  meeting  community  needs, 
cities  are  developing,  among  others,  the  following  forms  of 
organizations  and  activities: 

Recreational  and  Social  Activities  Through  Neighborhood 
Organization. 

Neighborhood  organization  through  which  the  people  of  a 
neighborhood  join  forces  in  a  unit  organization  to  meet 
their  own  needs.  Social  and  recreational  activities  de- 
veloped through  neighborhood  organization  include : 

Organization  of  neighborhood  committees 

The  bringing  together  of  neighborhood  groups  of  em- 
ployers and  employees  for  civic  purposes  such  as 
securing  of  more  playgrounds 

The  use  of  school  buildings  and  other  meeting  places, 
such  as  libraries,  as  neighborhood  recreation  centers 

Play  in  vacant  lots 

Street  play  centers 

Block  dances  and  parties,  emphasizing  the  participation 
of  the  older  as  well  as  the  young  people 

Teaching  of  dancing  to  beginners 

Church  hospitality  and  church  suppers 

Neighborhood  picnics  and  outings 

Dramatic  clubs  and  storytelling 

Recreation  clubs 


Community  Peoblems  17 

!N'eighborhood  singing  groups 
Parent-Teachers'  Associations 
Dry  saloons 
Backyard  play 

Special  Group  Activities 

Permanent  service  for  the  Army  and  Navy 
Service  for  merchant  marines  and  longshoremen 
Recreation  work  for  colored  citizens 
Citizenship  work  for  foreign  born 

Emphasis  on  community  activities  for  industrial  workers 
Rural  community  service 

Organization  of  children  into  Junior  Community  Service 
Leagues 

Educational  Activities 

Forums 

Mass  meetings  with  popular  subjects  presented  by  local 
ministers  and  outside  speakers 

Art  and  Cultural  Interests 

Community,  neighborhood   and  special  holiday  celebra- 
tions 
Conmiunity  singing,  choruses  and  choral  clubs 
Noon  time  singing  in  factories 
Band  concerts 
Community  opera 
Organ  recitals 
Orchestras 
Community  theaters 

Play-writing  contests  and  stimulation  of  local  talent 
Community  pageants 

Art  exhibits  designed  to  develop  local  talent 
Popular  entertainments 
Lyceums,  lectures 

Physical  Eecreation 

Evening  use  of  playgrounds  for  working  boys  and  girls 
and  adults 


18  Opportunities  fob,  Social  Work 

Public  School  Athletic  Leagues 

Athletic  leagues 

Gymnasium  classes 

Athletic  fields 

The  promotion  of  a  broad  physical  education  program 

Physical  efficiency  tests 

Promotion  of  sports  such  as : 

Coasting,  skiing,  skating  and  other  winter  sports 

Facilities  for  skating  in  winter  and  for  swimming 
and  water  sports  in  summer 

Soccer,  football,  field  hockey  and  similar  games 

Twilight  baseball  for  boys 

Physical  Facilities 

Summer  camps 
Municipal  bathing  beaches 
Swimming  pools 
Parks 

Public  drinking  fountains 
Public  comfort  stations 
Community  rest  rooms 
Memorial  buildings 
Public  golf  courses/' 

Playgrounds.  Childhood  is  preeminently  the  time  for 
play,  but  in  the  congested  sections  of  our  cities  the  op- 
portunity for  it  is  very  limited.  With  land  so  valuable 
that  every  available  foot  is  wanted  for  buildings  the 
chances  for  out-door  play  are  confined,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  to  the  sidewalks  and  streets.  The  streets  are  be- 
ing used  more  and  more  by  automobiles  and  heavy  trucks 
so  that  the  playing  of  games  in  them  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  children  running  on  the  sidewalks  are  an  incon- 
venience to  the  pedestrians.  Accordingly  it  has  been 
found  necessary  in  our  large  cities  to  set  aside  open 
spaces  in  the  midst  of  the  congested  areas  for  purposes  of 
play.  In  many  cases  they  are  equipped  with  a  running 
track  and  out-door  gymnasium  apparatus.     It  was  soon 


CoMMUi^iTY  Problems  19 

apparent  that  children  on  these  playgrounds  must  be  su- 
pervised and  during  the  summer  months  large  numbers  of 
college  men  with  some  experience  in  athletics  find  em- 
ployment in  this  work.  Their  duties  are  to  keep  order  in 
the  playgTound,  protect  the  children  from  injury,  super- 
vise their  games  and  teach  them  new  ones.  There  is  an 
increasing  tendency  in  our  cities  to  have  an  athletic  direc- 
tor connected  with  the  public  schools.  Their  duties  are 
to  give  setting-up  exercises  to  the  school  children,  to  coach 
the  teams  in  the  various  sports  in  the  schools  and  instill 
into  the  scholars  the  spirit  of  clean  sportsmanship.  Some 
of  these  directors  have  taken  courses  in  physical  training, 
but  many  of  them  are  college  graduates  with  a  good  rec- 
ord in  athletics  at  their  institution. 


(c)    INDUSTRIAL    WELFARE 

A  very  extensive  field  for  work  has  been  opened  by 
modern  industry  in  its  attempt  to  secure  the  health, 
safety  and  comfort  of  its  employees.  This  is  somewhat 
aside  frorci  most  forms  of  social  work,  but  is  included  in 
brief  in  order  to  complete  the  picture.  Many  employees 
are  inefficient  and  unhappy  in  their  work  because  they 
are  not  engaged  on  the  right  job.  To  avoid  this  many 
large  industrial  establishments  are  hiring  trained  psy- 
chologists who  make  tests  upon  the  present  employees  and 
new  employees  in  order  to  determine  the  type  of  work  to 
which  they  are  best  fitted.  When  the  employees  have  been 
satisfactorily  placed,  efforts  are  made  to  safeguard  them 
against  occupational  diseases  and  accident.  The  attempt 
is  made  to  secure  the  proper  humidity  and  temperature  of 
the  workrooms,  to  guard  them  against  poisonous  fumes 
and  gases,  and  carry  away  dangerous  dusts  or  filings. 
Safety  devices  are  attached  to  machines.  In  these  efforts 
to  guard  against  accident  and  injury  the  companies  are 
seconded  by  the  inspectors  of  insurance  companies,  who 
are  always  anxious  to  eliminate  risks.     Operating-rooms 


20  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

and  rest-rooms  are  provided  in  which  a  physician  and 
nurse  are  in  attendance,  and  the  employees  are  encouraged 
to  consult  the  physician  at  other  times  than  when  suffer- 
ing from  an  injury.  Proper  wash-rooms,  lockers  and 
toilets  have  been  introduced,  and  in  many  places  rooms  in 
which  the  employees  may  eat  the  lunches  which  they  bring 
or  have  served  to  them  at  cost.  Playgrounds  are  provided 
and  in  many  cases  a  summer  camp  is  run  for  the  em- 
ployees. A  building  is  often  provided  for  educational  and 
recreational  pur]30ses.  Classes  in  English  and  Ameri- 
canization work  are  carried  on  in  it.  The  end  for  all  these 
forms  of  activity  is  to  assure  an  intelligent,  healthy,  effi- 
cient and  contented  body  of  employees.  To  introduce  and 
supervise  these  varied  activities  requires  trained  men. 
Although  certain  of  these  activities  are  far  afield  from 
ordinary  social  work,  yet  other  lines  are  quite  closely  re- 
lated to  it.  The  inc^'ease  in  the  demand  for  experts  along 
these  lines  has  been  very  great  in  the  past  few  years. 

(d)   moral  and  religious 

Rescue  Missions.  All  the  cities  of  considerable  size  in 
this  country  are  confronted  with  the  problem  of  the  home- 
less man.  In  most  cases  he  is  a  human  derelict,  unwilling 
or  unable  to  earn  a  livelihood,  and  drifting  from  place  to 
place  when  he  has  worn  out  his  welcome  in  one  com- 
munity. In  most  cases  drink  has  been  one  of  the  princi- 
pal causes  of  his  present  unfortunate  condition.  Some- 
times he  does  odd  jobs,  but  more  often  begs  for  a  living. 
The  question  of  food  is  a  comparatively  simple  one,  but 
to  obtain  a  lodging  presents  more  difficulties.  Municipal 
lodging  houses,  wayfarers'  lodges  and  accommodations 
provided  by  charitable  organizations  where  lodgings  and 
meals  may  be  obtained  in  return  for  work  of  some  sort, 
have  helped  to  solve  one  side  of  this  question  in  many  com- 
munities, but  it  has  failed  to  reach  the  heart  of  the 
matter.      It  simply  furnishes  these  men  with  a  resting 


Community  Problems  21 

piace  for  a  night  or  two  until  they  can  continue  their 
journey  to  another  town.  It  does  little  to  change  a  man's 
attitude,  to  persuade  him  to  give  up  this  life  for  some- 
thing better,  or  help  him  to  overcome  the  habits  which 
have  brought  him  to  his  present  unfortunate  condition. 
The  Salvation  Army  and  Rescue  Missions  in  our  large 
cities  have  tried  to  reach  this  man  by  the  religious  appeal, 
and  to  encourage  and  assist  him  in  the  struggle  which 
is  bound  to  come  when  he  tries  to  give  up  these  habits 
which  have  enslaved  him.  One  of  the  slogans  of  the 
Salvation  Army  has  been  that  because  a  man  is  down 
is  no  reason  why  he  is  out,  and  the  members  of  this 
Army  have  gone  into  the  saloons  and  places  where  these 
men  congregate  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night  in  an 
effort  to  reach  and  reform  them.  They  have  begun  the 
work  through  religious  meetings  in  the  open  air  or  in 
their  halls,  and  when  they  have  found  a  man  who  was 
willing  to  try  to  come  back  and  make  something  of  him- 
self he  has  been  taken  to  the  Industrial  Home  where 
work  has  been  found  for  him  and  he  could  be  kept  under 
supervision.  Many  men  in  these  homes  have  joined  the 
Climbers'  Club  composed  of  those  who  have  pledged  them- 
selves to  give  up  drink  and  try  to  climb  back  into  decent 
manhood.  After  keeping  these  men  for  many  months 
in  these  homes  work  is  found  for  them  on  the  outside 
and  in  many  cases  they  become  volunteer  workers  for 
the  Army. 

In  many  cities  Slum  Posts  or  Rescue  Missions  are 
maintained  in  those  sections  of  the  city  where  these  home- 
less men  congregate,  and  an  attempt  is  made  at  reforma- 
tion through  religious  meetings,  personal  interviews,  and 
a  general  helpfulness  on  the  part  of  the  pastor  or  super- 
intendent who  holds  out  a  helping  hand  to  these  unfor- 
tunates. The  young  man  who  would  make  a  success  of 
this  type  of  work  must  possess  imbounded  optimism,  sym- 
pathy, and  patience.  With  the  improvement  in  the  en- 
forcement of  prohibition,  one  of  the  principal  causes  for 


22  Opportui^ities  foe  Sociai.  Work 

the  existence  of  this  unfortunate  group  will  be  removed, 
but  we  shall  never  be  entirely  free  from  those  who,  for 
one  cause  or  another,  have  become  discouraged,  lost  their 
ambition,  and  gradually  drifted  into  this  apparently  hope- 
less condition.  There  will  always  be  work  for  those  who 
are  brave  enough  to  tackle  this  job. 

Temperance  Worh.  For  the  past  fifty  years  an  increas- 
ing group  of  men  in  this  country  have  devoted  their  en- 
ergies to  the  fight  against  the  saloon.  As  a  result  of  their 
platform  work,  joined  by  the  conviction  of  many  large 
employers  of  labor  together  with  many  labor  union  mem- 
bers this  movement  gained  impetus.  The  testimony  of 
physicians  and  scientists,  boards  of  health,  and  insurance 
companies  was  all  to  the  same  end.  When  we  learned 
that  the  drink  bill  of  this  country  approximated  two  bil- 
lions of  dollars  a  year,  and  when  during  the  late  war  we 
were  confronted  with  a  shortage  of  food  stuffs,  the  great 
middle  class  of  this  country  became  convinced  that  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicants  as  a  beverage  must 
cease.  Although  the  amendment  to  the  Constitution  is 
accomplished,  the  enforcement  of  the  act  is  far  from 
satisfactory,  and  we  have  illegal  distilling,  illegal  trans- 
portation, and  illegal  sale  of  liquor  in  many  sections  of 
the  country.  As  a  result  the  Anti-Saloon  League  and 
kindred  organizations  find  their  work  far  from  completed 
and  much  of  their  energy  is  now  being  devoted  to  the 
passage  of  necessary  legislation  in  the  states,  to  the  prob- 
lem of  enforcement,  and  to  the  question  of  what  is  to 
take  the  place  of  the  saloon.  It  is  likely  that  the  demand 
for  active  men  in  this  line  of  work  will  continue  for 
some  time. 

Institutional  Churches.  It  has  long  been  recognized 
that  the  church  as  ordinarily  conducted  did  not  meet 
certain  conditions.  This  was  particularly  the  case  in  the 
downtown  sections  of  our  cities.  The  regular  Sunday 
services  and  prayer  meetings  had  their  place,  but  if  these 
church  buildings  were  adequately  to  meet  the  needs  of 


Community  Problems  23 

the  population  in  these  districts  they  must  be  open  for 
more  than  a  dozen  hours  a  week,  and  must  include  other 
types  of  work.  Accordingly  club  rooms  and  reading  rooms 
were  opened,  and  in  many  cases  the  pastor  or  assistant 
pastor  became  rather  a  club  leader  or  settlement  director. 
He  gave  his  time  to  making  this  building  a  community 
center  and  through  clubs,  lectures  and  discussions,  tried 
to  instill  community  spirit.  Classes  in  sewing,  cooking, 
and  music  were  added  in  many  cases.  Athletic  teams 
were  organized  and  in  many  cases  a  summer  camp  was 
maintained.  To  conduct  the  varied  activities  of  an  in- 
stitution of  this  sort  requires  training  very  different  from 
that  given  to  the  ordinary  minister.  It  requires  knowl- 
edge of  a  community,  or  community  needs,  of  club  work, 
of  play  and  recreation,  and  is  quite  like  the  work  of 
community  service  on  a  small  scale.  Work  of  this  sort 
should  appeal  to  many  college  men  who  do  not  feel  called 
to  take  up  the  work  of  the  ordinary  minister,  but  who 
desire  some  form  of  Christian  service.  Men  who  have 
had  some  experience  in  athletics  and  have  enjoyed  work 
in  a  boys'  club  or  as  a  volunteer  worker  in  a  settlement 
during  their  college  course,  are  quite  likely  to  feel  the 
appeal  of  this  type  of  work.  One  great  requisite  of 
success  along  this  line  is  the  ability  to  make  and  keep 
friends.  A  man  must  be  a, good  mixer  if  he  would  hold 
the  confidence  of  the  groups  which  he  is  likely  to  gather 
about  him  in  such  work. 


(e)   social  settlements 

In  most  of  our  large  cities  will  be  found  sections  where 
most  of  the  population  is  composed  of  those  of  foreign 
birth  or  parentage.  The  opportunity  for  the  residents 
of  these  sections  to  come  in  contact  with  those  of  the 
community  who  represent  the  finest  type  of  citizenship 
is  extremely  limited.  In  order  to  provide  a  point  of 
contact  between  these  diverse  elements  in  our  population 


24  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

the  settlement  idea  was  developed.  Beginning  with  the 
University  Settlement  in  New  York  over  four  hundred 
social  settlements  are  now  in  existence  in  this  country. 

The  service  which  a  social  settlement  renders  is  ex- 
tremely broad,  and  includes  an  active  interest  in  the  prob- 
lems of  the  individual,  the  family,  the  neighborhood,  and 
the  city.  Individuals  come  to  the  settlement  seeking  pri- 
marily recreation  and  education,  and  if  the  membership 
of  a  settlement  is  to  be  built  up  these  needs  must  be 
adequately  met.  Therefore,  recreation  work  is  one  of 
the  leading  regular  activities  of  every  settlement.  The 
headworker  will  also  be  presented  with  family  problems, 
principally  on  account  of  health  or  financial  distress,  and 
must  be  in  a  position  to  render  assistance  or  refer  the 
family  to  the  proper  agency.  Through  the  membership 
and  activities  of  the  settlement  it  is  possible  to  secure 
accurate  information  with  regard  to  existing  social  con- 
ditions in  the  neighborhood,  and  at  the  same  time  through 
the  stimulus  of  the  settlement  develop  self-expression  and 
neighborhood  expression.  The  settlement  fails  in  its  duty 
to  the  community  if  it  does  not  stimulate  the  immigrant 
to  give  his  best  to  his  community  and  to  the  country  of 
his  adoption.  This  is  done  by  instruction  and  contact 
with  the  finest  types  in  the  community.  Through  the 
musical  and  dramatic  work  of  the  settlement  much  may 
be  done  to  raise  the  cultural  taste  of  a  community,  and 
often  exceptional  talent  along  these  lines  is  discovered 
and  developed.  In  a  word,  the  community  is  helped  to 
find  itself. 

The  lines  of  activity  in  a  large  settlement  house  are 
quite  varied.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  work  is  done 
through  clubs  usually  in  charge  of  a  volunteer  worker. 
These  often  include  clubs  composed  of  men  interested  in 
serious  questions  and  the  affairs  of  the  neighborhood. 
Mothers'  clubs,  and  some  clubs  of  boys  and  girls.  Classes 
in  cooking^  dressmaking,  millinery  and  housekeeping  are 


Community  Problems  25 

often  maintained.  Athletic  work  is  a  part  of  almost 
every  settlement,  and  in  most  cases  gymnasium  facilities 
are  provided  in  the  house.  A  branch  library  is  often  main- 
tained and  hours  are  devoted  to  reading  and  story  telling. 
In  many  settlements  considerable  musical  work  is  done* 
and  classes  in  piano  and  violin  playing  and  in  group 
singing  are  conducted.  The  residents  of  the  neighborhood 
who  attend  the  settlement  are  encouraged  to  take  an  in- 
terest in  the  problems  of  the  community,  and  many  re- 
forms have  had  their  inception  in  an  active  settlement. 
The  position  of  head  worker  in  a  social  settlement  is  one 
of  gi-eat  responsibility.  He  must  be  able  to  attract  the 
right  type  of  men  and  women  as  both  resident  and  non- 
resident workers  in  the  settlement.  He  must  take  a  keen 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  neighborhood  and  be  re- 
spected as  a  leader  by  those  in  the  neighborhood.  He 
must  possess  to  an  extraordinary  degi-ee  executive  and 
organizing  ability.  He  must  be  willing  to  work  hard 
because  the  hours  are  long  and  the  number  of  matters 
coming  to  him  for  decision  and  settlement  is  large. 

For  a  man  who  possesses  the  qualities  required  there 
are  few  positions  in  which  one  can  do  more  for  a  com- 
munity than  as  head  worker  in  a  settlement.  The  num- 
ber of  men  who  can  fill  positions  of  this  kind  is  never 
equal  to  the  demand  for  them.  In  The  Compass  for 
April,  1921,  is  the  following  note:  ^^Just  at  present  there 
seems  to  be  a  distinct  shortage  of  high  grade  trained 
men  or  women  for  settlement  work.  Half  a  dozen  jobs 
froml  Cleveland,  Minneapolis,  Boston  and  !New  York, 
paying  from  $2,200  to  $3,600  and  maintenance,  have  re- 
mained unfilled  for  some  time.  It  seems  a  pity  that  at 
a  time  of  so  much  general  unemployment,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  best  known  fields  of  social  work  should  be 
faced  with  a  shortage  of  trained  people." 

In  addition  to  the  position  of  head  worker  many  of 
the  larger  settlements  employ  an  assistant  head  worker, 


26  Opportuis^ities  for  Social  Work 

an  athletic  director,  and  directors  of  club  work.  It  is 
possible  for  students  in  colleges  located  in  large  cities 
to  have  experience  as  volunteer  workers  during  their  col- 
lege course  and  determine  whether  this  type  of  work 
appeals  to  them,  and  whether  they  are  likely  to  succeed 
at  it  as  a  life  work.  A  conscientious  head  worker  is 
usually  ready  to  encourage  those  who  are  likely  to  succeed 
along  this  line  of  social  service,  and  to  discourage  those 
who,  from  certain  temperamental  defects,  are  not  likely 
to  prove  successful.  Those  who  are  planning  to  enter  this 
type  of  work  should  specialize  in  courses  dealing  with 
the  economic,  social,  and  political  conditions  and  history 
of  this  country. 

(f)   councils  of  social  agencies 

Many  of  the  large  cities  of  this  country  have,  within 
recent  years,  been  confronted  with  two  problems  in  the 
field  of  philanthropic  work.  There  has  been  a  feeling 
that  w^ith  the  multiplication  of  social  agencies  there  might 
be  considerable  duplication  along  some  lines  while  there 
were  other  sections  of  the  field  that  were  not  being  ade- 
quately covered.  In  order  to  meet  this  need  councils  of 
social  agencies  have  been  formed  in  many  cities  to  limit 
the  fields  of  the  different  organizations,  to  raise  the  stand- 
ard of  the  work,  and  to  assign  to  the  proper  organization 
any  new  piece  of  work  which  it  seemed  wise  to  undertake. 
At  the  same  time  it  seemed  advisable  to  regulate  in  some 
way  the  raising  of  funds  for  the  various  organizations 
working  in  the  community.  The  task  of  raising  the  money 
required  for  these  organizations  was  not  an  easy  one,  and 
the  burden  resting  upon  the  directors  became  well-nigh 
intolerable.  At  the  same  time  the  community  became 
impatient  when  drive  succeeded  drive  for  these  organiza- 
tions with  astounding  frequency.  Each  organization  ap- 
pealed to  the  same  small  group  of  givers  in  the  community 
and  it  was  felt  in  many  places  that  the  time  had  come  to 


Community  Problems  2Y 

have  one  annual  drive  for  all  the  social  agencies  of  the 
city  and  to  endeavor  to  increase  the  number  of  con- 
tributors. With  this  end  in  view  the  Council  of  Social 
Agencies  and  the  Community  Chest  were  in  many  places 
linked  together  and  an  annual  drive  for  funds  was  made. 
This  fund  was  then  assigned  to  the  different  agencies  ac- 
cording to  the  importance  of  the  work  done  and  the  accom- 
panying expense.  This  form  of  activity  is  comparatively 
recent,  but  it  is  evident  that  a  man  of  wide  training  and 
experience  is  required  for  an  executive  position  with  one 
of  these  Councils  of  Social  Agencies.  He  must  be  able 
to  see  things  in  a  broad  way  and  to  include  the  needs  of 
the  entire  community  in  his  vision. 

(g)   commtjnity  surveys 

In  many  communities  the  number  of  social  organiza- 
tions and  the  expense  of  supporting  them  has  increased 
so  rapidly  within  recent  years  that  the  citizens  have  felt 
impelled  to  take  account  of  stock  and  endeavor  to  de- 
termine how  well  the  field  is  being  covered,  and  whether 
the  need  exists  for  all  of  the  present  organizations,  or 
whether  more  should  be  formed.  This  requires  a  care- 
ful and  systematic  survey  of  the  community.  Several 
large  surveys  like  those  of  Pittsburgh  and  Springfield 
have  been  made,  and  a  number  of  surveys  upon  particular 
topics  such  as  the  vice  surveys  in  a  number  of  our  Ameri- 
can cities.  To  take  charge  of  a  piece  of  work  of  this 
nature  requires  a  man  of  wide  statistical  training  and 
experience.  He  must  know  the  facts  it  is  necessary  to 
learn,  be  able  to  prepare  the  inquiry  blanks,  apportion 
the  city,  take  charge  of  the  actual  enumeration  or  study, 
plan  the  tables,  take  charge  of  the  tabulation,  and  if  nec- 
essary make  the  statistical  analysis.  Few  communities 
possess  men  capable  of  taking  charge  of  a  piece  of  work 
of  this  kind,  and  there  is  always  a  limited  demand  for 
experts  who  are  capable  of  filling  such  a  position. 


28  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

III.    The  Family 

(a)   family  social  work 

There  is  one  type  of  social  work  in  which  the  unit  is 
the  family.  About  forty  years  ago  the  movement  for 
the  establishment  of  charity  organization  societies  began 
in  this  country.  In  the  beginning  they  were  little  other 
than  associations  to  organize  the  relief  work  which  was 
being  done  by  different  organizations  which  dealt  with 
families.  The  principal  idea  was  to  avoid  duplication 
in  work.  Since  then,  however,  the  idea  underlying  these 
organizations  has  changed  until,  under  a  variety  of  names, 
they  have  become  the  principal  societies  doing  family 
case  work  and  social  work  in  the  cities  of  this  country. 
They  were  called  originally  Charity  Organization  Soci- 
eties, Organized  Charities  Associations,  and  Associated 
Charities.  During  recent  years  the  name  of  ''Charity'^ 
has  fallen  somewhat  into  disrepute  and  in  selecting  a  new 
name  for  these  societies  the  attempt  has  been  made  to 
stress  the  family  end  of  the  work  and  to  avoid  the  word 
''Charity."  The  activities  of  these  organizations  do  not 
consist  merely  in  giving  relief,  but  rather  in  the  attempt 
to  place  the  families  in  a  position  where  they  will  be 
ultimately  self-supporting.  Relief  may  be  necessary  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time,  but  this  is  merely  incidental  to 
the  rehabilitation  of  the  family.  Work  of  this  kind 
requires  the  intensive  investigation  of  a  family.  It  is  not 
merely  the  attempt  to  discover  and  record  all  the  faults 
and  defects  in  the  family,  but  rather  to  determine  its 
latent  possibilities,  and  to  devise  some  way  by  which  this 
family  may  become  in  time  a  self-respecting  and  self- 
supporting  group.  The  corner  stone  of  any  such  organi- 
zations must  be  careful  and  painstaking  case  work.  The 
worker  must  be  able  to  discover,  not  alone  the  causes 
which  have  brought  the  family  to  its  present  unfortunate 


The  Family  29 

situation,  but  the  latent  resources  of  the  family  which 
may  be  called  forth  to  make  it  function  properly.  In 
many  forms  of  social  work  good  case  work  is  necessary, 
but  it  is  the  very  life  of  an  organization  of  this  sort. 
There  is  no  problem  which  can  call  forth  the  highest 
qualities  of  a  worker,  or  challenge  his  best  endeavor  to 
a  greater  extent  than  when  presented  with  the  problem 
of  a  family  which  has  made  a  sorry  failure  out  of  life. 
'No  one  is  fitted  to  become  the  secretary  of  such  an  or- 
ganization until  he  has  been  trained  in  the  technique  of 
case  work  and  has  had  active  experience  in  it.  He  must 
understand  the  necessity  for  a  thorough  investigation  of 
each  case,  and  from  the  interpretation  of  the  evidence 
on  the  record  be  able  to  make  a  proper  diagnosis.  In 
this  he  will  require  the  assistance  of  a  case  committee, 
and  must  be  able  to  enlist  a  group  of  volunteers  who  will 
give  loyal  and  regular  service  to  this  work.  He  must  gain 
the  cooperation  of  those  engaged  in  other  lines  of  social 
work  in  the  city  because  an  organization  of  this  sort  de- 
pends, to  a  considerable  extent,  upon  assistance  which 
can  be  rendered  by  workers  in  other  lines.  The  Civic 
Protective  Association  may  help  with  the  wayward  girl, 
the  probation  officer  with  the  boy  who  is  hard  to  manage, 
the  Dispensary  must  help  with  the  suspected  case  of 
tuberculosis,  the  Visiting'  ^urse  must  come  in  for  sick- 
ness, and  the  Children's  Aid  Society  must  help  in  find- 
ing a  suitable  home  for  a  baby.  The  secretary  is  also 
interested  in  any  community  problems  which  are  making 
family  life  difficult.  He  is  interested  in  public  health, 
in  pure  milk,  in  decent  recreation,  in  the  employment 
situation,  in  the  conditions  and  rentals  of  tenement  houses, 
in  the  workman's  compensation  act,  and  in  the  countless 
conditions  which  affect  family  life.  He  may  find  it  neces- 
sary to  assist  in  placing  an  insane  parent,  a  feeble-minded 
child,  or  a  tuberculous  mother  in  a  suitable  institution. 
He  must  be  able  to  keep  the  work  of  his  Association 
before  the  public  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  easier  the 


30  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

task  of  raising  the  funds  required  for  the  work.  In  many 
organizations  a  considerable  share  of  the  responsibility  for 
raising  the  funds  rests  with  the  secretary.  There  are 
more  paid  workers  in  this  line  of  work  than  in  any  other 
type  of  organization  doing  relief  work  in  this  country, 
and  the  opportunities  for  well-trained  men  are  large. 

Closely  allied  with  this  work,  and  uniform  with  it  in 
so  far  as  the  unit  is  the  family,  is  Mothers'  Aid,  or 
Widows'  Pension  work.  The  feeling  is  growing  in  this 
country  that  the  presence  of  a  widow  with  young  children 
is  required  in  her  home,  and  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  expect 
her  to  earn  her  own  living  in  addition  to  bringing  up  her 
children.  It  is  also  felt  that  she  should  not  be  dependent 
upon  assistance  given  by  a  charitable  organization,  but 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide  sufficient  funds 
to  enable  her  to  stay  at  home  and  bring  up  her  children 
properly.  Eligibility  for  a  widow's  pension  varies  in 
different  states.  In  some  states  deserted  wives  are  en- 
titled to  support.  In  some  cases  the  pension  rests  upon 
the  citizenship  of  the  father,  but  as  a  rule  pensions  are 
granted  when  the  mother  is  a  suitable  woman  in  a  proper 
home  with  young  children,  and  without  the  income  re- 
quired for  a  decent  standard  of  living.  The  determina- 
tion of  these  points  requires  careful  case  work  and  fre- 
quent visitation  in  the  home  after  the  pension  is  granted. 
The  proper  administration  of  a  fund  of  this  nature  re- 
quires adequate  supervision  from  the  central  office  and 
the  standardization  of  the  work  throughout  the  state  as 
a  whole.  There  are  various  methods  in  force  for  the 
investigation  and  visitation  in  the  local  communities,  but 
whatever  be  the  method  a  trained  executive  is  needed 
in  the  central  office. 


(b)  departments  of  public  charities 

A  position  which  requires  many  of  the  same  qualities 
needed  by  the  Executive  Secretary  to  a  Charity  Organi- 


The  Child  31 

zation  Society  is  the  Superintendent  or  Commissioner 
of  the  Department  of  Public  Charities  in  our  cities.  A 
large  share  of  the  work  of  these  departments  is  with  fam- 
ilies. They  dispense  outdoor  relief  to  families  in  their 
homes,  and  also  have  charge  of  the  charitable  institutions 
maintained  by  the  City.  Medical  attendance  in  their 
homes  and  care  in  hospitals  is  furnished  by  the  City  in 
a  good  many  cases,  and  pauper  burials  are  usually  in 
charge  of  this  Department.  The  work  requires  a  person 
familiar  with  case  work  and  possessing  administrative 
ability.  At  present  most  of  these  positions  are  filled  by 
men  who  have  had  little  or  no  experience  in  relief  work, 
but  who  have  obtained  the  position  as  a  reward  for  politi- 
cal service,  or  who  have  been  successful  in  administrative 
work  along  some  other  line.  An  encouraging  sign  in  the 
past  few  years  has  been  the  appointment  to  these  posi- 
tions of  men  who  have  had  experience  in  social  work,  and 
it  is  probable  that  in  the  future  an  increasing  number 
of  communities  will  demand  that  the  persons  placed  in 
charge  of  their  Public  Charities  shall  be  men  who  have 
had  experience  in  some  related  work. 


IV.    The  Child 
(a)   children's  aid  societies 

In  every  state  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  children 
who,  as  a  result  of  the  death  of  their  parents,  of  improper 
home  conditions,  or  of  wayward  tendencies,  can  no  longer 
be  kept  in  their  own  homes.  In  some  cases  these  children 
are  placed  in  institutions  and  in  others  they  are  boarded 
in  suitable  homes,  or  in  some  instances  given  in  adoption, 
x^lmost  every  state  has  a  society  whose  business  it  is  to 
investigate  the  home,  to  study  the  child,  and  to  find  a 
suitable  home  for  it.  Successful  child  placing  renders 
three  services  to  the  child.  In  the  first  place  it  makes 
a  careful  study  of  each  individual  child  based  upon  physi- 


32  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

cal  and  mental  tests  to  determine  whether  the  child  is 
normal,  and  whether  any  minor  operation  such  as  one  on 
adenoids  or  tonsils  is  required  before  the  child  can  be 
placed  in  a  suitable  home.  In  case  the  examination  dis- 
closes distinct  mental  subnormalitj  it  may  be  necessary 
to  place  a  child  in  an  institution.  If,  however,  the  child 
is  normal,  the  second  task  is  the  selection  of  a  suitable 
home  for  it.  The  Society,  through  its  visitors,  is  con- 
tinually inspecting  and  tabulating  homes  and  that  one  is 
selected  in  which  the  child  is  most  likely  to  succeed.  The 
third  task  is  the  continuous  visitation  and  inspection  of 
this  home  to  determine  that  the  child  is  making  satisfac- 
tory progress.  This  work  requires  skill  and  intelligence 
and  the  direction  of  a  Society  of  this  nature  offers  a 
large  opportunity  to  the  right  man.  The  demand  is  con- 
stantly greater  than  the  supply  and  there  is  always  com- 
petition for  the  man  who  possesses  the  qualification  and 
training  required  for  the  position. 

(b)   boys'  clubs 

The  external  factors  with  the  most  influence  upon  boys 
are  the  home,  the  school,  the  church,  and  the  street.  In 
many  cases  the  influences  of  the  home  are  far  from  stim- 
ulating to  boys,  and  especially  with  children  of  foreign- 
born  parents  there  is  a  tendency  of  the  child  to  consider 
his  parents  as  back  numbers  and  to  be  unwilling  to  take 
their  advice  or  follow  their  example.  These  children 
feel  that  if  they  are  to  succeed  in  this  country  it  must 
be  by  adopting  American  customs,  and  they  feel  that 
in  many  respects  their  parents  are  un-American,  and  that 
the  advice  they  receive  at  home  possesses  but  little  value. 
The  school  does  its  best  to  train  these  children  to  become 
useful  citizens  and  the  attempt  is  made  to  place  the 
strongest  teachers  in  the  foreign-born  sections  to  influence 
their  pupils.  The  attempt  is  made  through  parent  asso- 
ciations to  enlist  the  support  of  parents  to  work  with 


The  Delinquent  33 

the  school,  and  to  carry  the  school  training  over  into  the 
home.  The  influence  of  the  street  is  not  always  of  the 
best  and  playgrounds  under  proper  supervision  are  estab- 
lished to  avoid  the  dangers  of  the  city  streets.  But  with 
all  these  influences  there  is  the  need  of  something  more 
to  keep  the  city  child  from  becoming  the  member  of  a 
gang.  Boys  are  gregarious  by  instinct  and  have  a  supply 
of  surplus  energy  which  is  likely  to  lead  them  into  bad 
practices  if  no  suitable  channel  can  be  found  for  its 
activity.  The  best  answer  seems  to  be  to  transform  the 
gang  into  a  properly  housed,  well  regulated,  and  suitably 
supervised  club.  There  are  few  large  cities  in  this  coun- 
try which  do  not  possess  one  or  more  boys'  clubs  with 
a  trained  superintendent,  and  in  many  cases  with  an  as- 
sistant superintendent  and  athletic  director.  Much  of  the 
work  is  done  by  volunteers  who  attend  the  club  for  one 
or  two  nights  a  week  to  take  charge  of  some  particular 
group  in  which  they  are  interested. 

Athletics  always  play  a  large  part  in  the  activities  of 
such  a  club  and  baseball,  basketball,  and  football  follow 
one  another  in  stimulating  interest  and  teaching  team 
play.  The  superintendent  must  know  his  boys  personally 
and  be  able  to  share  their  problems  and  direct  them  in 
their  difficulties.  He  must  be  able  not  only  to  gain  the 
confidence  of  the  boys,  but  to  arouse  and  keep  the  interest 
of  those  who  give  their  services  as  volunteers.  The  suc- 
cess of  a  superintendent  of  a  boys'  club  depends  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  upon  personal  qualities  which  cannot 
be  imparted  by  training. 


V.    The   Delinquent 
(a)   probation  work 

Although  the  number  of  those  with  anti-social  instincts 
in  our  communities  is  comparatively  small,  yet  the  trouble 
and  expense  to  which  we  are  put  by  their  presence  is 


84  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

out  of  all  proportion  to  their  numbers.  Beginning  at  a 
comparatively  early  age,  the  number  of  persons  convicted 
of  offenses  against  our  laws  increases  to  a  maximum  at 
about  the  age  of  twenty-five.  Our  jails,  reformatories,  and 
prisons  have  a  population  of  about  a  hundred  thousand, 
and  about  a  half  more  than  this  number  are  annually  com- 
mitted to  these  institutions.  Twenty  years  ago  a  person 
convicted  before  one  of  our  courts  was  either  dismissed 
with  a  reprimand,  fined,  or  sent  to  jail  or  prison.  When 
we  finally  grasped  the  idea  that  the  ends  of  justice  were 
better  served  by  reformation  than  by  punishment,  and 
that  to  sentence  a  man  to  thirty  days  in  jail  served  little 
purpose  but  to  enable  him  to  associate  "with  those  who 
were  worse  than  he  was,  we  looked  around  for  something 
better  than  a  jail  sentence.  This  was  found  in  probation. 
Under  the  old  system  there  was  no  intermediary  between 
the  prosecuting  attorney  and  the  judge.  A  boy  arrested 
for  theft  was  kept  in  the  police  station  over  night,  brought 
to  court  in  the  morning,  his  case  was  tried  in  the  open 
court  and  he  was  discharged  or  perhaps  sent  to  the  Reform 
School.  Under  the  modern  methods  the  case  is  reported 
to  the  probation  officer  who  is  a  social  worker  rather  than 
a  police  officer.  He  visits  the  home,  interviews  the  boy, 
his  parents,  his  teachers,  and  finds  out  what  he  can  about 
the  neighborhood  and  his  associates.  Two  or  three  days 
are  allowed  for  this  investigation  and  in  the  meantime 
the  boy  stays  either  at  home  or  in  some  children's  build- 
ing. He  comes  to  the  hearing  in  response  to  a  summons 
and  his  case  is  heard  by  a  juvenile  court  judge,  or  a  judge 
in  a  court  of  domestic  relations,  with  no  one  present  ex- 
cept those  interested  in  this  particular  case.  The  proba- 
tion officer  tells  his  story  and  makes  his  recommenda- 
tion to  the  court.  The  judge  listens  to  this  and  if  it  is 
the  first  offense  will  discharge  the  boy  with  a  warning 
to  him  or  to  his  parents,  or  may  place  him  upon  probation 
for  a  number  of  months.  In  the  latter  case  he  reports 
regularly  to  the  probation  officer  and  brings  him  weekly 


The  Delinquent  35 

a  card  .showing  that  he  has  been  regular  in  attendance 
at  school.  In  addition  to  this  the  probation  officer  visits 
the  home  and  perhaps  obtains  for  the  boy  membership 
in  some  boys'  club  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  home.  In 
a  large  proportion  of  such  cases  the  boy  is  straightened 
out  and  never  again  comes  into  contact  with  the  author- 
ities. 

Under  the  old  method  it  frequently  happened  that  a 
man  who  was  in  the  habit  of  becoming  intoxicated  or 
who  failed  to  support  his  family  was  sent  to  jail.  As  a 
result  all  income  of  the  family  ceased  and  it  became  de- 
pendent upon  public  or  private  charity.  Under  the  new 
method  the  man  is  placed  under  probation  and  ordered 
to  pay  a  certain  amoimt  weekly  for  the  support  of  his 
family.  In  the  meantime  the  probation  officer  does  his 
best  to  encourage  the  husband  and  remove  the  friction 
which  may  have  existed  in  the  home. 

The  result  of  probation  has  been  to  reduce  the  number 
of  jail  commitments  and  in  some  states  some  of  the  jails 
are  no  longer  tenanted.  There  are  at  present  about  two 
thousand  parole  officers  in  this  country  and  when  the 
selection  and  tenure  of  these  officers  is  not  dependent  upon 
politics,  it  offers  a  very  attractive  field  for  college  gradu- 
ates. The  University  of  Minnesota  has  offered  a  course 
of  training  for  parole  officers.  In  most  of  our  states  the 
tenure  of  office  is  reasonably  certain  and  fair  salaries  are 
sure.  It  would  appeal  to  many  to  feel  they  were  working 
for  one  of  the  three  great  branches  of  our  Government. 
This  work  is  in  no  way  dependent  upon  the  philanthropy 
of  w^ealthy  contributors,  but  is  a  part  of  our  judiciary 
system.  The  work  is  bound  to  grow,  and  since  in  most 
of  our  large  cities  it  is  performed  under  good  supervision, 
the  opportunity  for  real  training  is  assured.  The  pro- 
bation officer  does  not  work  single-handed  in  his  efforts 
to  reform  those  committed  to  his  charge,  but  has  the  as- 
sistance and  cooperation  of  social  workers  and  agencies 
in  a  variety  of  fields.     There  is  much  to  encourage  the 


36  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

worker  in  his  daily  tasks  because  when  his  job  is  efficiently 
done  he  sees  the  results  of  his  labors  almost  at  once  in 
reconstructed  individuals  and  homes.  The  opportunity 
for  advancement  to  supervisory  positions  and  to  the  work 
of  chief  probation  officer  in  a  large  city  or  state  opens 
continuous  avenues  of  advancement  to  industrious  and 
efficient  workers.  Although  connected  with  the  courts 
a  probation  officer  is  essentially  a  social  worker.  College 
graduates  who  wish  to  enlist  in  humanitarian  and  reform 
work  would  do  well  to  consider  the  opportunities  offered 
along  the  line  of  probation  work. 

(b)   reform   schools 

Most  of  the  states  in  this  country  possess  at  least  one 
school  maintained  by  the  State  to  which  boys  between 
the  ages  of  eight  and  fifteen  who  have  shown  wayward 
and  criminal  tendencies  and  have  not  responded  to  pro- 
bationary treatment  may  be  sent.  Boys  are  usually  com- 
mitted to  these  schools  under  an  indeterminate  sentence 
by  which  they  may  not  be  kept  beyond  a  certain  maximum 
age,  but  may  be  paroled  at  an  earlier  age  at  the  discretion 
of  the  directors  of  the  school.  Years  ago  these  schools 
usually  consisted  of  one  or  more  large  congregate  buildings 
situated  in  a  fairly  good-sized  yard  which  was  surrounded 
by  a  wall.  To  this  type  of  institution  there  were  many 
objections.  The  life  of  the  boys  was  regulated  by  the 
stroke  of  a  bell.  Everj^thing  was  done  at  wholesale  and 
far  removed  from  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  family 
home.  The  little  world  of  the  inmates  was  bounded  by 
the  high  wall  which  surrounded  the  school.  From  such 
surroundings  the  boy  was  likely  to  come  forth  institution- 
alized no  matter  how  satisfactory  the  educational  facilities 
were. 

Under  the  modern  regime  a  school  of  this  sort  is  located 
in  the  country  upon  a  tract  of  land  comprising  perhaps 
hundreds  of  acres.     There  will  be  one  central  adminis- 


The  Delinquent  37 

tration  building  and  another  central  plant  for  the  voca- 
tional work,  or  other  joint  activities  of  the  institution, 
such  as  laundry.  The  boys,  however,  will  live  in  small 
cottages  in  charge  of  a  matron  or  possibly  a  man  and 
wife  where  conditions  will  approximate  those  of  a  large 
family.  Each  cottage  will  have  its  own  garden  and  in 
some  cases  a  separate  barn.  These  units  are,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  self-supporting.  By  means  of  a  number 
of  small  cottages  it  is  j)ossible  to  stimulate  rivalry  among 
the  groups  and  to  develop  a  spirit  in  which  every  boy 
is  anxious  to  have  his  cottage  the  best  in  the  group.  In- 
terest in  education  is  promoted  by  spelling  matches  be- 
tween different  cottages,  and  prizes  can  be  offered  for  the 
best  vegetables  raised  on  these  farms.  By  a  system  of 
credits  the  supplies  furnished  each  cottage  are  conserved 
and  the  excessive  breakage  of  dishes  is  avoided.  Athletic 
events  can  be  arranged  among  the  boys  in  the  different 
groups.  Conditions  on  such  a  farm  are  quite  different 
from  those  in  the  old  congregate  institution  located  in 
or  near  some  city. 

To  become  superintendent  or  assistant  superintendent 
of  such  a  school  offers  a  wonderful  opportunity  to  a  man 
who  understands  and  is  interested  in  boys.  In  addition 
he  should  possess  considerable  administrative  and  busi- 
ness ability. 

Another  interesting  piece  of  work  in  connection  with 
these  schools  is  that  of  parole  officer.  At  the  time  of  the 
commitment  of  a  boy  he  should  be  given  a  careful  physical 
and  mental  examination  and  a  social  study  should  be  made 
of  his  home  conditions.  A  copy  of  this  evidence  should 
be  sent  to  the  institution  to  furnish  a  background  for  the 
study  of  the  boy  while  at  the  school.  When  the  time  for 
the  release  of  the  boy  approaches  it  should  be  the  duty 
of  the  social  worker  or  parole  officer  to  determine  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  bo}^  may  be  returned  to  the 
community  with  the  greatest  likelihood  of  success.  It 
may  be  that  the  conditions  and  associations  in  his  home 


38  Opportunities  fob  Social  Woek 

community  are  such  that  it  will  be  unwise  to  return  him 
to  the  place  where  he  originally  got  into  trouble.  In  that 
case  employment  should  be  found  for  him  in  some  other 
community  and  a  proper  boarding  place  secured  for  him, 
but  when  this  is  done  the  boy  must  not  be  left  to  his  own 
resources  but  should  be  visited  from  time  to  time  by  the 
parole  officer  and  should  report  regularly  to  the  institution. 
The  boy  should  be  encouraged  to  look  upon  the  parole 
officer  as  a  friend  ever  reaay  to  give  him  advice  and 
assistance,  and  to  come  to  his  aid  in  time  of  trouble. 
To  establish  and  maintain  this  relationship  requires  a 
rare  combination  of  qualities,  and  a  good  parole  agent  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  workers  to  secure. 


(c)     EEFORMATOEIES  FOE  MEN 

At  one  time  in  this  country  there  were  no  institutions 
to  which  those  over  the  age  of  commitment  to  reform 
schools  could  be  sent  except  the  county  jails  and  state 
prisons.  The  former  were  usually  maintained  for  those 
convicted  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  the  latter  for  those  found 
guilty  of  a  felony.  About  all  that  was  expected  of  the 
county  jail  was  to  hold  the  inmates  secure  and  to  obtain 
some  work  from  them.  There  was  no  attempt  at  classi- 
fication of  inmates  and  since  they  were  committed  for 
short  sentences  little  was  done  to  teach  them  a  trade.  A 
considerable  proportion  of  the  young  men  given  jail  sen- 
tences had  never  learned  a  trade  and  the  very  fact  that 
they  were  unskilled  laborers  with  uncertain  employment 
contributed  to  their  irresponsible  life.  This  situation 
brought  the  conviction  that  if  men  of  this  type  were  to 
become  responsible  members  of  society  they  must  be  taught 
a  trade  at  which  they  could  earn  a  decent  living,  and 
that  the  habit  of  irregular  employment  must  be  broken. 
With  this  end  in  view  most  of  our  states  have  established 
reformatories  for  young  men  between  the  ages  of  sixteen 
and  twenty-five  or  thirty  to  which  this  type  of  offender 


The  Delinquent  39 

may  be  sent.  Here  thev  are  tauo^ht  habits  of  res^ilarity, 
obedience,  and  industry.  One  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  an  institution  of  this  type  is  that  during  his 
period  of  confinement  every  man  shall  be  taught  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  trade  in  order  that  he  may  become  self-support- 
ing "when  released.  At  the  same  time  he  is  taught  habits 
of  regularity  and  learns  to  keep  the  hours  of  the  ordinary 
employed  workman  in  order  that  these  same  habits  may 
be  carried  over  into  his  life  when  released.  In  addition 
he  is  instructed  in  the  ordinary  grammar  school  branches. 
In  many  institutions  all  of  the  work  of  erecting  new 
buildings,  including  brick-laying,  carpentry,  plastering, 
plumbing,  steam-fitting,  and  painting,  is  done  by  the  in- 
mates as  part  of  their  training. 

In  some  of  these  institutions  military  drill  is  introduced 
to  teach  a  quick  response  to  word  of  command  and  train 
the  men  in  erect  carriage  of  the  body.  In  addition  to  the 
trade  schools  education  in  primary  branches  is  given. 
Athletics  are  allowed  on  certain  days  and  practically  the 
entire  population  of  the  institution  gathers  as  spectators. 
The  position  of  superintendent  of  such  an  institution  is  a 
responsible  one.  In  addition  to  the  task  of  giving  gen- 
eral supervision  to  all  these  lines  of  activity  it  is  his  duty 
to  recommend  to  his  board  the  inmates  who,  in  his  opinion, 
are  worthy  of  parole.  There  is  a  tendency  at  present 
to  keep  these  positions  out  of  politics,  and  the  salary 
and  nature  of  the  responsibility  is  such  as  to  attract  men 
with  a  college  degree.  It  would  be  advisable  for  a  grad- 
uate to  become  connected  with  such  an  institution  in  a 
minor  capacity  and  become  acquainted  with  the  various 
branches  of  the  work  in  order  to  fit  himself  for  advance- 
ment. The  man  who  does  this  and  shows  that  he  possesses 
industry  and  administrative  capacity  in  addition  to  the 
ability  to  gain  the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  inmates 
may  expect  to  obtain  in  time  a  position  of  responsibility 
in  this  line  of  work.  As  is  the  case  with  the  Eeform 
School,  the  work  of  the  social  worker  and  parole  officer 


40  Opportunities  for  Social  Work 

is  of  very  great  importance  because  the  real  test  of  the 
success  of  an  institution  depends  upon  the  lives  led  by 
the  men  who  have  been  released  from  the  institution. 
Every  superintendent  is  anxious  to  have  a  parole  officer 
who  can  gain  and  hold  the  confidence  of  the  men  on 
parole.  His  task  is  by  no  means  an  easy  one  because, 
in  addition  to  the  general  oversight  of  the  men,  he  must 
assist  in  finding  employment  for  them. 

(d)   state  prisons 

The  average  age  of  the  inmates  of  State  Prisons  is  some- 
what higher  than  that  in  the  reformatories,  and  as  a  rule 
the  inmates  are  more  hardened  criminals.  The  length 
of  sentence  is  usually  longer  and  men  serving  a  life  term 
are  to  be  found  in  all  of  these  institutions.  As  a  rule 
less  attention  is  paid  to  teach  a  variety  of  trades  in  these 
institutions,  but  more  to  make  them  as  nearly  self-support- 
ing as  possible.  The  salaries  in  these  institutions  are 
attractive  and  usually  include  maintenance.  In  many 
cases,  however,  politics  plays  a  part  in  the  choice  of  war- 
den. In  all  institutions  of  this  kind  appropriations  must 
be  obtained  from  the  state  legislature  and  in  most  cases 
the  administrative  head  of  the  institution  is  expected  to 
assist  the  board  of  directors  in  obtaining  the  necessary 
funds  for  maintenance,  and  occasionally  an  extra  sum 
for  new  construction.  The  type  of  official  is  desired  who 
makes  a  good  appearane^^  before  the  Appropriations  Com- 
mittee and  is  able  to  preset  his  needs  forcibly  and  briefly. 

(e)   jails 

'As  maintained  at  present  in  most  sections  of  this  coun- 
try, the  county  jails  do  not  offer  much  of  an  opportunity 
for  a  college  graduate  who  wishes  to  engage  in  social  serv- 
ice. There  is  no  question  as  to  the  need  for  improved 
management  and  a  livelier  interest  in  the  inmates  on  the 


The  Defective  41 

part  of  the  officers,  but  at  present  these  positions  may  be 
classified  as  political  and  do  not  offer  a  very  promising 
outlook  to  a  young  man  who  wishes  to  advance  to  a  per- 
manent position  of  trust  through  the  recognition  of  merit. 


In  most  of  our  states  there  is  a  Prisoners'  Aid  Society 
whose  chief  function  is  the  assistance  of  discharged  pris- 
oners. Some  of  these  societies  are  quite  active  while  the 
work  of  others  is  comparatively  unimportant.  Some  of 
the  more  active  and  influential  societies  offer  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  a  man  who  wishes  to  devote  himself  to  the  task 
of  aiding  discharged  prisoners  to  take  their  places  as  re- 
sponsible members  of  a  community. 

YI.      The  Defective 

The  principal  defective  classes  in  the  community  are 
the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  insane,  the  mentally 
deficient,  and  the  epileptic.  There  are  in  many  of  the 
states  organizations  which  deal  with  these  classes  in  the 
community,  but  from  their  very  nature  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  work  is  done  in  institutions.  In  the 
hospitals  for  the  insane  aiid  epileptic  a  considerable  share 
of  the  work  is  medical  in  its  nature,  and  in  charge  of 
these  institutions  is  usually  found  a  superintendent  v/ho 
is  a  graduate  of  a  medical  school  and  has  later  specialized 
in  this  department.  Under  him  are  one  or  more  physicians 
and  then  a  considerable  number  of  nurses  or  attendants. 
One  who  hopes  to  become  the  head  of  such  an  institution 
should  first  graduate  from  a  medical  school  and  later 
specialize  in  this  particular  type  of  disease. 

In  schools  for  the  feeble-minded  the  hope  of  ultimate 
recovery  does  not  exist.  A  large  proportion  of  the  in- 
mates can  never  be  released  and  the  most  that  can  be  ex- 
pected of  any  of  them  is  to  do  routine  work  in  some  place 


42  Opportunities  for  Sociai.  Work 

where  they  can  be  carefully  safeguarded  and  efficiently 
supervised.  Medical  education  is  to  be  recommended  to 
any  who  hope  to  become  in  charge  of  such  an  institution. 
In  the  case  of  the  blind  and  deaf  and  dumb  the  situa- 
tion is  slightly  different.  Institutions  for  these  two  groups 
are  primarily  educational.  The  attempt  is  made  to  grad- 
uate patients  who  can  become  self-supporting.  What  ap- 
plies to  one  of  these  groups  applies  with  nearly  equal 
force  to  the  other.  That  work  in  institutions  for  these  two 
groups  may  be  considered  as  a  form  of  social  service  is 
evident  from  a  statement  which  was  recently  issued  by 
Gallaudet  College  in  Washington,  D.  C. : 

"The  heads  of  departments  of  Sociology  are  requested  to 
take  into  consideration  the  need  of  workers  in  the  field  of 
education  of  the  deaf.  This  field  covers  the  whole  United 
States,  as  every  state  has  a  school  for  deaf  children  or  makes 
provision  for  their  instruction  in  a  near-by  school.  There 
are  also  many  private  schools  and  day  schools  in  existence. 

"There  are  some  fourteen  thousand  deaf  children  under 
instruction  and  about  fourteen  hundred  teachers  employed. 

"The  grade  of  work  done  in  the  state  schools  for  the  deaf 
starts  with  the  most  elementary  and  goes  up  into  the  lower 
high  school  course.  There  is  also  first-class  industrial  work 
conducted  in  nearly  all  of  the  large  'schools. 

"Salaries  of  teachers  vary  from  six  hundred  dollars  and 
living  upward.  The  average  salary  of  men  teachers  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  dollars. 

"What  is  most  needed  in  this  special  profession  at  the 
present  time  is  young  men  of  good  collegiate  training  and 
executive  ability.  To  such  young  men  attractive  positions 
are  open  which  should  lead  in  course  of  time  to  executive 
positions  as  heads  of  education  departments  of  residential 
institutions  where  salaries  generally  include  living  and  from 
twenty-five  hundred  to  three  thousand  dollars  cash  compen- 
sation. 

"The  work  of  educating  the  deaf  is  a  special  one  requiring 
training  along  unusual  lines.  Normal  fellowships  in  the  ad- 
vanced department  of  the  Columbia  Institution  for  the  Deaf, 


The  Defective  43 

known  as  Gallaudet  College,  are  open  each  year  for  a  limited 
number  of  young  men  who  are  just  graduating  from  college. 
These  fellowships  are  valued  at  five  hundred  dollars,  includ- 
ing living,  tuition,  etc.  They  lead  to  a  further  collegiate 
degree,  and  the  graduates  have  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
positions. 

"The  work  of  educating  the  deaf  has  been  highly  developed 
in  the  past  century  and  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  parts 
of  our  educational  undertakings.  I  hope  that  classes  in 
sociology  may  have  their  attention  called  to  this  field  and 
that  we  shall  be  able  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  our  profession 
from  earnest  young  men  who  are  mlling  to  do  a  necessary 
and  helpful  task  as  their  life  work.'^ 


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